Search Results

The moisture sorption-desorption kinetics of copper-free brake pads was studied in detail. The sorption-desorption behavior is dependent on the environmental temperature and humidity. At 24 °C under 54% RH, the sorption increases rapidly for a week or so identified as the first stage of sorption, enters the second stage of negligible weight gain for a month and then the third stage of rapid sorption again. With increasing moisture sorption, the pad thickness increases through the 3 stages and the dynamic modulus also increases through the 3 stages. Friction materials lose moisture rapidly at 130°C and behave like desiccants. The sorption-desorption phenomenon significantly influences the friction coefficient -- a higher moisture content leading to lower friction coefficients. It is demonstrated that the rising friction coefficient for the half a dozen braking stops at the beginning of every brake testing in general is due to moisture desorption caused by rising pad temperatures.

Earlier publications have demonstrated that pad and disc properties change during storage and also during the SAE J2522 Brake Effectiveness Test Procedure. The current investigation was undertaken to find out how the properties change under milder braking conditions, using the SAE J2707 Wear Test Procedure. A copper-free formulation was selected for the investigation and tested on an inertia dynamometer using a front caliper designed for a passenger car. The pad dynamic modulus changed up or down throughout the test, depending on the test conditions. The pad dynamic modulus, the pad natural frequencies and the disc natural frequencies all decreased by the end of the test. Under high-speed, high-deceleration and high-temperature braking conditions, the pad surface region permanently expands, which results in reduced dynamic modulus and also leads to reduced pad thickness loss as compared with pad weight loss.

Copper-free disc pads of 9 different compositions were made using a traditional hot molding process and tested to study frictional behavior. It is found that the friction coefficient consists primarily of two parts; one part controlled by the plastic deformation of the friction surface region of the disc and pad, and the second part controlled by the total wear of the disc and pads. As the plastic deformation and the wear are non-linear with respect to the load and sliding speed, the friction coefficient becomes a non-linear function of the load and speed. Under moderate braking conditions, the plastic deformation part is more significant in determining the friction coefficient while under more severe braking conditions, the wear contribution becomes more significant. The frictional behavior of a fade cycle is explained, and the correlation between brake squeal and disc wear is confirmed.

Earlier publications show that brake pad physical properties such as hardness, modulus and natural frequencies continue to increase at room temperature over a period of 12 months and that the changes are faster during the first 3 - 6 months. The current investigation was undertaken to see how the properties might change during testing for the pads as well as for the discs. Low-copper and copper-free formulations were tested on pickup truck and passenger car brakes. In all cases, the dynamic modulus and natural frequencies are found to decrease (not increase) after the SAE J2522 performance testing, indicating that the stiffness of the pad and that of the disc decrease faster than the mass loss due to wear. Also, the inboard pad and the outboard pad change at two different rates.

Automotive brakes operate under varying conditions of speed and deceleration. In other words, the friction material is subjected to a wide range of normal loads and sliding speeds. One widely accepted test procedure to evaluate, compare and screen friction materials is the SAE J2522 Brake Effectiveness test, which requires full-size production brakes to be tested on an inertia brake dynamometer. For the current investigation, disc pads of two types of 10 different formulations (5 high-copper and 5 copper-free formulations) were prepared for testing on a front disc brake suitable for a pickup truck of GVW 3,200 kg. Each pad had 2 vertical slots, and one chamfer on the leading edge and also on the trailing edge of the pad. One segment of the test procedure looks at the coefficient of friction (Mu) under different brake line pressures and different sliding speeds to determine its stability or variability.

One low-copper formulation and one copper-free formulation were made into disc pads, and both of them were cured under 4 different conditions. These pads had no backing layer and no scorched layer. Pad thickness, dynamic modulus and natural frequencies were continuously monitored over a period of 12 months. After 12 months at room temperature, pad thickness, dynamic modulus and natural frequencies all increased to higher values. The low-copper formulation increased relatively rapidly during the first 60 days and the copper-free formulation increased relatively rapidly for the first 90 days, and then slowly thereafter. Two competing processes are found to be taking place simultaneously; internal stress relief leading to pad expansion and cross-linking of the resin leading to pad shrinkage. As the pad properties are changing continuously, the timing of property measurement becomes an important issue for quality assurance.

There is anecdotal evidence that disc pad wear numbers measured in thickness loss and disc pad wear numbers measured in weight loss do not show the same wear trends after wear or performance testing. However, research papers on this topic are difficult to find. Therefore, this investigation was undertaken to study and document this behavior in detail on high-copper, low-copper and no-copper (or copper-free) NAO pads. In all cases, thickness loss measurements are found to be substantially lower than expected from the weight loss data according to the SAE J2522 test schedule. This divergence is caused by pad swelling in the pad layer adjacent to the friction contact surface during brake testing at high temperatures. In addition to formulation changes, disc pad processing conditions such as mixing time and hot molding pressure are found to affect pad swelling.

As some brake engineers believe that brake squeal can be related to pad hardness, friction coefficient or compressibility while others disagree, a study has been undertaken to develop further insights. Two commercial formulas, one low-copper NAO and the other copper-free NAO, were made into disc pads of varying porosity without an underlayer and they were checked for specific gravity, porosity, hardness (HRS and HRR), natural frequencies, compressibility, friction, wear and squeal. With increasing porosity, the hardness and natural frequencies continue to decrease. The compressibility definitely does not increase, but rather slightly decrease or stays the same. The coefficient of friction decreases for the low-copper along with pad and disc wear reduction, and increases for the copper-free along with pad wear increase with no change in disc wear. No obvious correlation emerges between brake squeal and pad hardness, friction coefficient or compressibility.

In a previous investigation, brake squeal was found to be related to disc wear, but not to pad wear or in-stop average coefficient of friction as tested according to the SAE J2522 performance procedure, using Low-Copper NAOs. To further validate the disc wear - squeal correlation, a variety of formulations of No-Copper, Low-Copper and High-Copper NAO disc pads were made and tested to investigate friction, pad wear, disc wear, brake squeal and wheel dust formation. It is found that disc weight loss measured at the end of the burnish cycle of the SAE J2522 (AK Master) is closely related to dynamometer/vehicle brake squeal and vehicle wheel dust formation, and that there is a critical disc wear rate of approximately 1.0 grams for the current brake system, below which brake squeal and wheel dust are minimal.

The influence of processing conditions on Low-Copper NAO disc pads were investigated as part of an effort to develop Low-Copper disc pad formulations as this kind of information is not readily available in open literature. Processing conditions as well as formulation modifications are found to influence friction, pad wear, disc wear and brake squeal. Low-Copper disc pads for pick-up trucks, equivalent to an OE pad, are developed. It is also found that brake squeal measured during the SAE J2522 (AK Master) Performance testing is related to the combined total wear rate of the disc plus the inner/outer pads or the disc wear rate alone, and that there is a threshold wear rate, above which brake squeal increases rapidly.