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This paper presents a new method to derive the tire forces for simultaneous braking and cornering, by combining empirical models for pure braking and cornering using brush-model tire mechanics. The method is aimed at simulation of vehicle handling, and is of intermediate complexity such that it may be implemented and calibrated by the end user. The brush model states that the contact patch between the tire and the road is divided into an adhesion region where the rubber is gripping the road and a sliding region where the rubber slides on the road surface. The total force generated by the tire is then composed of components from these two regions. In the proposed method the adhesion and the sliding forces are extracted from an empirical pure-slip tire model and then scaled to account for the combined-slip condition. The combined-slip self-aligning torque is described likewise.

Truck platooning is an emerging technology that exploits the drag reduction experienced by bluff bodies moving together in close longitudinal proximity. The drag-reduction phenomenon is produced via two mechanisms: wake-effect drag reduction from leading vehicles, whereby a following vehicle operates in a region of lower apparent wind speed, thus reducing its drag; and base-drag reduction from following vehicles, whereby the high-pressure field forward of a closely-following vehicle will increase the base pressure of a leading vehicle, thus reducing its drag. This paper presents a physics-guided empirical model for calculating the drag-reduction benefits from truck platooning. The model provides a general framework from which the drag reduction of any vehicle in a heterogeneous truck platoon can be calculated, based on its isolated-vehicle drag-coefficient performance and limited geometric considerations.

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion is a process dominated by chemical kinetics of the fuel-air mixture. The hottest part of the mixture ignites first, and compresses the rest of the charge, which then ignites after a short time lag. Crevices and boundary layers generally remain too cold to react, and result in substantial hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. Turbulence has little effect on HCCI combustion, and may be most important as a factor in determining temperature gradients and boundary layer thickness inside the cylinder. The importance of thermal gradients inside the cylinder makes it necessary to use an integrated fluid mechanics-chemical kinetics code for accurate predictions of HCCI combustion. However, the use of a fluid mechanics code with detailed chemical kinetics is too computationally intensive for today's computers.

The paper describes a novel method for calculating the residual gas fraction and the trapping efficiency in a 2 stroke engine. Assuming one dimensional compressible flow through the inlet and exhaust ports, the method estimates the instantaneous mass flowing in and out from the combustion chamber; later the residual gas fraction and trapping efficiency are estimated combining together the perfect displacement and perfect mixing scavenging models. It is assumed that when the intake port opens, the fresh mixture is pushing out the burned charge without any mixing and after a multiple of the time needed for the largest eddy to perform one rotation, the two gasses are instantly mixed up together and expelled. The result is a very simple algorithm that does not require much computational time and is able to estimate with high level of precision the trapping efficiency and the residual gas fraction in 2 stroke engines.

A novel method was developed to predict the free-stream velocity experienced by a traveling vehicle based on track-side anemometric measurements. The end objective of this research was to enhance the reliability of the prediction of free-stream conditions in order to improve the accuracy of aerodynamic drag coefficient (CD) assessments from track tests of surface vehicles. Although the technique was applied to heavy-duty vehicles in the present work, it is equally applicable to any vehicle type. The proposed method is based on Taylor’s hypothesis, a principle applied in fluid mechanics to convert temporal signals into the spatial domain. It considers that the turbulent wind velocity fluctuations measured at one point are due to the "passage of an unchanging pattern of turbulent motion over the point". The method is applied to predict the wind velocity that the vehicle will experience as it encounters a wind pattern detected earlier by an anemometer located upwind.

The concentration of carbonaceous particulate matter in the exhaust of diesel engines depends on the rates of formation and oxidation of soot in the combustion chamber. Soot forms early in the combustion process when local fuel-rich areas exist, whereas soot oxidation occurs later when more air is entrained into the fuel spray. Based on this understanding, a phenomenological combustion model is established. In the model, the cylinder volume is divided into four zones: a rich fuel spray core, a premixed-burning/burned gas zone, a mixing controlled burning zone and a lean air zone. Soot formation takes place in the mixing controlled burning zone where the local C/O ratio is above the critical value. Soot oxidation occurs in the premixed-burning/burned gas zone as air is entrained. By using a quasi-global chemical reaction scheme, the oxidation of soot particles by different species can be investigated.

In this paper a fast NOx model is presented which can be used for engine optimization, aftertreatment control or virtual mapping. A cylinder pressure trace is required as input data. High calculation speed is obtained by using table interpolation to calculate equilibrium temperatures and species concentrations. Test data from a single-cylinder engine and from a complete six-cylinder engine have been used for calibration and validation of the model. The model produces results of good agreement with emission measurements using approximately 50 combustion product zones and a calculation time of one second per engine cycle. Different compression ratios, EGR rates, injection timing, inlet pressures etc. were used in the validation tests.

Modern diesel engine injection systems are largely computer controlled. This opens the door for tailoring the fuel rate. Rate shaping in combination with increased injection pressure and nozzle design will play an important role in the efforts to maintain the superiority of the diesel engine in terms of fuel economy while meeting future demands on emissions. This approach to studying the potential of rate shaping in order to reduce NO formation is based on three sub-models. The first model calculates the fuel rate by using standard expressions for calculating the areas of the dimensioning flow paths in the nozzle and the corresponding discharge coefficients. In the second sub-model the heat release rate is described as a function of available fuel energy, i.e. fuel mass, in the cylinder. The third submodel is the multizone combustion model that calculates NO for a given heat release rate under assumed air /fuel ratios.

An experimental study of a glow plug engine combustion process has been performed by applying chemiluminescence imaging. The major intent was to understand what kind of combustion is present in a glow plug engine and how the combustion process behaves in a small volume and at high engine speed. To achieve this, images of natural emitted light were taken and filters were applied for isolating the formaldehyde and hydroxyl species. Images were taken in a model airplane engine, 4.11 cm3, modified for optical access. The pictures were acquired using a high speed camera capable of taking one photo every second or fourth crank angle degree, and consequently visualizing the progress of the combustion process. The images were taken with the same operating condition at two different engine speeds: 9600 and 13400 rpm. A mixture of 65% methanol, 20% nitromethane and 15% lubricant was used as fuel.

An experimental study of the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion process has been conducted by using chemiluminescence imaging. The major intent was to characterize the flame structure and its transient behavior. To achieve this, time resolved images of the naturally emitted light were taken. Emitted light was studied by recording its spectral content and applying different filters to isolate species like OH and CH. Imaging was enabled by a truck-sized engine modified for optical access. An intensified digital camera was used for the imaging. Some imaging was done using a streak-camera, capable of taking eight arbitrarily spaced pictures during a single cycle, thus visualizing the progress of the combustion process. All imaging was done with similar operating conditions and a mixture of n-heptane and iso-octane was used as fuel. Some 20 crank angles before Top Dead Center (TDC), cool flames were found to exist.

Use of natural gas-diesel dual-fuel (NDDF) combustion in compression ignition engines is a method of reducing the net greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate matter (PM) emissions of these engines. Compressed natural gas (NG) is injected into the intake manifold of the engine and the air-NG mixture is ignited by a direct injection of diesel in the cylinder. One of the main challenges with NDDF combustion is the methane (primary component of NG) slip at low and medium loads, which reduces the engine efficiency and offsets the advantage of lower carbon dioxide emissions of the NG combustion. In order to address this issue, an intake manifold insert is devised with the objective to alter the intake flow profile into the engine and ultimately reduce the methane slip. This is a novel strategy for an NDDF engine since modifying the in-cylinder flow profile can intensify the mixing between diesel and air-NG mixture in order to improve the NG utilization in the cylinder.

Turbulence is known to influence the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performance of ground vehicles. What is not thoroughly understood are the characteristics of turbulence that influence this performance and how they can be applied in a consistent manner for aerodynamic design and evaluation purposes. Through collaboration between Transport Canada and the National Research Council Canada (NRC), a project was undertaken to develop a system for generating road-representative turbulence in the NRC 9 m Wind Tunnel, named the Road Turbulence System (RTS). This endeavour was undertaken in support of a larger project to evaluate new and emerging drag reduction technologies for heavy-duty vehicles. A multi-stage design process was used to develop the RTS for use with a 30% scale model of a heavy-duty vehicle in the NRC 9m Wind Tunnel.

In this paper, a theoretical study is presented where fuel rate shaping is analyzed in combination with EGR as a method for reducing NOx formation. The analytical tools used include an empirically based model to convert fuel rate to heat release rate, and a zero dimensional multizone combustion model to calculate combustion products, local flame temperatures and NOx emissions at a given heat release rate. The multizone model, which has been presented earlier, includes flame radiation and convective heat losses. Several geometrical shapes of the fuel rate are tested for different combustion timings and EGR rates. It is found that the fuel rate giving the lowest NOx formation varies with the injection timing. In order to lower the NOx emissions at normal and advanced injection timings, the fuel rate should have a rather long duration, and start at its maximum level followed by a slow decay.

The Flight Research Laboratory (FRL), National Research Council (NRC) of Canada is currently developing an in-flight aircraft aerodynamic model identification technique that determines the small perturbation model at a given test condition. Initial demonstrations have been carried out using the NRC Falcon 20 research aircraft. An efficient system architecture, in terms of both software algorithms and hardware processing, has been designed to meet the stringent near real-time requirements of an in-flight system. As well, novel hardware and software techniques are being applied to the calibration and measurement of the fundamental in-flight parameters, such as air data. The small perturbation models are then combined to develop a global model of the aircraft that is validated by comparing the model response to flight data. The maneuvers were performed according to the FAA Acceptance Test Guide (ATG).

Aerodynamic interaction between vehicles on a roadway can modify the fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions of the vehicle relative to their performance under isolated, uniform-wind conditions. A comprehensive wind-tunnel study was undertaken to examine changes to the aerodynamic drag experienced by vehicles in close proximity, in adjacent lanes. Wind-load measurements were conducted for two general configurations: 15%-scale testing with light-duty-vehicle (LDV) models, and 6.7%-scale testing with a heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) model. For the LDV study, a DrivAer model was tested with a proximate AeroSUV model or an Ahmed model at lateral distances representing 75%, 100%, and 125% of a typical highway lane spacing, and for longitudinal distances up to 2 vehicle lengths forward and back. Commensurate measurements were conducted for the AeroSUV model with the proximate DrivAer or Ahmed model.

This paper describes an investigation of the performance potential of conventional flat-panel boat-tail concepts applied to tractor-trailer combinations. The study makes use of data from two wind-tunnel investigations, using model scales of 10% and 30%. Variations in boat-tail geometry were evaluated including the influence of length, side-panel angle and shape, top-panel angle and vertical position, and the presence of a lower panel. In addition, the beneficial interaction of the aerodynamic influence of boat-tails and side-skirts that provides a larger drag reduction than the sum of the individual-component drag reductions, identified in recent years through wind-tunnel tests in different facilities, has been further confirmed. This confirmation was accomplished using combinations of various boat-tails and side-skirts, with additional variations in the configuration of the tractor-trailer configuration.

Data is presented from a number of flight research aircraft, which have been involved in the research of the effects of inflight icing, in a variety of atmospheric supercooled droplet and mixed-phase icing environmental conditions. The aircraft Types considered cover both Pneumatic and Thermal Ice Protection Systems (IPS). Icing includes supercooled droplet impact icing upon airframe and propeller blades and cold-soaked frost icing. The drag effects of inflight icing, from mixed-phase small and large droplets encountered during the course of SALPEX cloud physics research operations, upon a Fokker F-27 turboprop transport aircraft, have been analyzed. Furthermore, during the course of AIRS 1.5 and AIRS II inflight icing flight research operations, the NRC Convair conducted aerodynamic characterization maneuvers, following and during icing accretion in a wide range of environmental conditions of altitude, air temperature, LWC and droplet spectra.

An air hybrid is a vehicle with an ICE modified to also work as an air compressor and air motor. The engine is connected to two air reservoirs, normally the atmosphere and a high pressure tank. The main benefit of such a system is the possibility to make use of the kinetic energy of the vehicle otherwise lost when braking. The main difference between the air hybrid developed in this paper and earlier air hybrid concepts is the introduction of a pressure tank that substitutes the atmosphere as supplier of low air pressure. By this modification, a very high torque can be achieved in compressor mode as well as in air motor mode. A model of an air hybrid with two air tanks was created using the engine simulation code GT-Power. The results from the simulations were combined with a driving cycle to estimate the reduction in fuel consumption.

This article presents an autonomous steering control scheme for articulated heavy vehicles (AHVs). Despite economic and environmental benefits in freight transportation, lateral stability is always a concern for AHVs in high-speed highway operations due to their multi-unit vehicle structures, and high centers of gravity (CGs). In addition, North American harsh winter weather makes the lateral stability even more challenging. AHVs often experience amplified lateral motions of trailing vehicle units in high-speed evasive maneuvers. AHVs represent a 7.5 times higher risk than passenger cars in highway operation. Human driver errors cause about 94% of traffic collisions. However, little attention has been paid to autonomous steering control of AHVs.

The operation of S.I. engines on lean or diluents containing gaseous fuel-air mixtures is attractive in principle since it can provide improved fuel economy, reduced tendency to knock and low NOx emissions combined with a possible improvement to the operational life of the engine. However, the overall flame propagation rates then tend to drop sharply as the operational mixture is excessively leaned or diluted with CO2 or N2. The paper presents experimental data obtained in a single cylinder, variable compression ratio, S.I., CFR engine when operated on a number of gaseous fuels and some of their mixtures. A gradual leaning of the operating mixture can affect adversely in turn, emissions of CO and unburned fuel and cyclic variation. The extent of deterioration in these operating parameters is shown to correlate well with the corresponding values of the combustion period, a key combustion indicator. Similar effects were observed when adding diluents to stoichiometric CH4-air mixtures.