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Alternative fuels, such as natural and bio-gas, are attractive options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from combustion engines. However, the naturally occurring variation in gas composition poses a challenge and may significantly impact engine performance. The gas composition affects fundamental fuel properties such as flame propagation speed and heat release rate. Deviations from the gas composition for which the engine was calibrated result in changes in the combustion phase, reducing engine efficiency and increasing fuel consumption and emissions. However, the efficiency loss can be limited by estimating the combustion phase and adapting the spark timing, which could be implemented favorably using a closed-loop control approach. In this paper, we evaluate the efficiency loss resulting from varying gas compositions and the benefits of using a closed-loop controller to adapt the spark timing to retain the nominal combustion phase.

In more or less all aspects of life and in all sectors, there is a generalized global demand to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, leading to the tightening and expansion of existing emissions regulations. Currently, non-road engines manufacturers are facing updates such as, among others, US Tier 5 (2028), European Stage V (2019/2020), and China Non-Road Stage IV (in phases between 2023 and 2026). For on-road applications, updates of Euro VII (2025), China VI (2021), and California Low NOx Program (2024) are planned. These new laws demand significant reductions in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions from heavy-duty vehicles. When equipped with an appropriate exhaust aftertreatment system, natural gas engines are a promising technology to meet the new emission standards.

In contrast to the currently primarily used liquid fuels (diesel and gasoline), methane (CH4) as a fuel offers a high potential for a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). This advantage can only be used if tailpipe CH4 emissions are reduced to a minimum, since the GHG impact of CH4 in the atmosphere is higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Three-way catalysts (TWC - stoichiometric combustion) and methane oxidation catalysts (MOC - lean combustion) can be used for post-engine CH4 oxidation. Both technologies allow for a nearly complete CH4 conversion to CO2 and water at sufficiently high exhaust temperatures (above the light-off temperature of the catalysts). However, CH4 combustion is facing a huge challenge with the planned introduction of Euro VII emissions standard, where stricter CH4 emission limits and a decrease of the cold start starting temperatures are discussed.

Increasingly stringent pollutant and CO2 emission standards require the car manufacturers to investigate innovative solutions to further improve the fuel economy and environmental impact of their fleets. Nowadays, NOx emissions standards are stringent for spark-ignition (SI) internal combustion engines (ICEs) and many techniques are investigated to limit these emissions. Among these, an extremely lean combustion has a large potential to simultaneously reduce the NOx raw emissions and the fuel consumption of SI ICEs. Engines with pre-chamber ignition system are promising solutions for realizing a high air-fuel ratio which is both ignitable and with an adequate combustion speed. In this work, the combustion characteristics of an active pre-chamber system are experimentally investigated using a single-cylinder research engine. The engine under exam is a large bore heavy-duty unit with an active pre-chamber fuelled with compressed natural gas.

The development of future gasoline engines is dominated by the study of new technologies aimed at reducing the engine negative environmental impact and increase its thermal efficiency. One common trend is to develop smaller engines able to operate in stoichiometric conditions across the whole engine map for better efficiency, lower fuel consumption, and optimal conversion rate of the three-way catalyst (TWC). Water injection is one promising technique, as it significantly reduces the engine knock tendency and avoids fuel enrichment for exhaust temperature mitigation at high power operation. With the focus on reducing the carbon footprint of the automotive sector, another vital topic of research is the investigation of new alternative CO2-neutral fuels or so-called eFuels. Several studies have already shown how these new synthetic fuels can be produced by exploiting renewable energy sources and can significantly reduce engine emissions.

Alcohol-based fuels are a viable alternative to fossil fuels for powering vehicles. As a drop-in fuel, an oxygenated fuel blend containing the C8 alcohol 2-ethylhexanol (isomer of octanol), hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and rapeseed methyl ester (RME) can reduce soot and NOx emissions whilst maintaining engine performance. However, fuel injection strategy significantly affects combustion and hence has been investigated with a view to reducing emissions whilst maintaining engine efficiency. In a single cylinder light-duty compression ignition research engine, the effect of different injection strategies (main, main/post, double pre/main, double pre/main/post injection) and EGR levels (0%, 19%) on specifically NOx, soot emissions and particle size distribution was investigated for three different fuels: fossil diesel fuel, HVO and the oxygenated blend. The blend was designed to have diesel-like combustion properties (cetane number of 52) and had an oxygen content of 5.4% by mass.

This study investigates particulate matter (PM) and regulated emissions from renewable rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) biodiesel in pure and blended forms and contrasts that to conventional diesel fuel. Environmental and health concerns are the major motivation for combustion engines research, especially finding sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels and reducing diesel PM emissions. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), including RME, are renewable fuels commonly used from low level blends with diesel to full substitution. They strongly reduce the net carbon dioxide emissions. It is largely unknown how the emissions and characteristics of PM get altered by the combined effect of adding biodiesel to diesel and implementing modern engine concepts that reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).

A large number of measurement techniques have been developed or adapted from other fields to measure various parameters of engine particulates. With the strict limits given by regulations on pollutant emissions, many advanced combustion strategies have been developed towards cleaner combustion. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is widely applied to suppress nitrogen oxide (NOx) and reduce soot emissions. On the other hand, gasoline starts to be utilized in compression ignition engines due to great potential in soot reduction and high engine efficiency. New engine trends raise the need for good sensitivity and suitable accuracy of the PM measurement techniques to detect particulates with smaller size and low particulate mass emissions. In this work, we present a comparison between different measurement techniques for particulate matter (PM) emissions in a compression ignition engine running on gasoline fuel. A wide-range of EGR was used with lambda varied from 3 down to 1.

The introduction of a physics-based zero-dimensional stochastic reactor model combined with tabulated chemistry enables the simulation-supported development of future compression-ignited engines. The stochastic reactor model mimics mixture and temperature inhomogeneities induced by turbulence, direct injection and heat transfer. Thus, it is possible to improve the prediction of NOx emissions compared to common mean-value models. To reduce the number of designs to be evaluated during the simulation-based multi-objective optimization, genetic algorithms are proven to be an effective tool. Based on an initial set of designs, the algorithm aims to evolve the designs to find the best parameters for the given constraints and objectives. The extension by response surface models improves the prediction of the best possible Pareto Front, while the time of optimization is kept low.

The double compression expansion engine (DCEE) is a promising concept for high engine efficiency while fulfilling the most stringent European and US emission legislation. The complete thermodynamic cycle of the engine is split among several cylinders. Combustion of fuel occurs in the combustion cylinder and in the expansion cylinder the exhaust gases are over expanded to obtain high efficiency. A high-pressure tank is installed between these two cylinders for after-treatment purposes. One proposal is to utilize thermal reduction of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the high-pressure tank as exhaust temperatures can be sufficiently high (above 700 °C) for the selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) reactions to occur. The exhaust gas residence time at these elevated exhaust temperatures is also long enough for the chemical reactions, as the volume of the high-pressure tank is substantially larger than the volume of the combustion cylinders.

With progressing electrification of automotive powertrains and demands to meet increasingly stringent emission regulations, a combination of an electric motor and downsized turbocharged spark-ignited engine has been recognized as a viable solution. The SI engine must be optimized, and preferentially downsized, to reduce tailpipe CO2 and other emissions. However, drives to increase BMEP (Brake Mean Effective Pressure) and compression ratio/thermal efficiency increase propensities of knocking (auto-ignition of residual unburnt charge before the propagating flame reaches it) in downsized engines. Currently, knock is mitigated by retarding the ignition timing, but this has several limitations. Another option identified in the last decade (following trials of similar technology in aircraft combustion engines) is water injection, which suppresses knocking largely by reducing local in-cylinder mixture temperatures due to its latent heat of vaporization.

NOx pollution from diesel engines has been stated as causing over 10 000 pre-mature deaths annually and predictions are showing that this level will increase [1]. In order to decrease this growing global problem, exhaust after-treatment systems for diesel engines have to be improved, this is especially so for vehicles carrying freight as their use of diesel engines is expected to carry on into the future [2]. The most common way to reduce diesel engine NOx out emissions is to use SCR. SCR operates by injecting aqueous Urea solution, 32.5% by volume (AUS-32), that evaporates prior the catalytic surface of the SCR-catalyst. Due to a catalytic reaction within the catalyst, NOx is converted nominally into Nitrogen and Water. Currently, the evaporative process is enhanced by aggressive mixer plates and long flow paths.

Water injection is a promising technology to improve the fuel efficiency of turbocharged gasoline engines due to the possibility to suppress engine knock. Additionally, this technology is believed to enable the efficient operation of the three-way catalyst also at high-load conditions, through limiting the exhaust temperature. In this numerical study, we investigate the effect of water on the chemical and thermodynamic processes using 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) with detailed chemistry. In the first step, the influence of different amounts of water vapor on ignition delay time, laminar flame speed, and heat capacity is investigated. In the second step, the impact of water vaporization is analyzed for port and direct injection. For this purpose, the water mass flow and the injection pressure are varied.

The concept of Partially Premixed Combustion (PPC) in internal combustion engines has shown to yield high gross indicated efficiencies, but at the expense of gas exchange efficiencies. Most of the experimental research on partially premixed combustion has been conducted on compression ignition engines designed to operate on diesel fuel and relatively high exhaust temperatures. The partially premixed combustion concept on the other hand relies on dilution with high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates to slow down the combustion which results in low exhaust temperatures, but also high mass flows over cylinder, valves, ports and manifolds. A careful design of the gas exchange system, EGR arrangement and heat exchangers is therefore of utter importance. Experiments were performed on a heavy-duty, compression ignition engine using a fuel consisting of 80 volume % 95 RON service station gasoline and 20 volume % n-heptane.

Reducing emissions and improving efficiency are major goals of modern internal combustion engine research. The use of biomass-derived fuels in Diesel engines is an effective way of reducing well-to-wheels (WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Moreover, partially premixed combustion (PPC) makes it possible to achieve very efficient combustion with low emissions of soot and NOx. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of using alcohol/Diesel blends or neat alcohols on emissions and thermal efficiency during PPC. Four alcohols were evaluated: n-butanol, isobutanol, n-octanol, and 2-ethylhexanol. The alcohols were blended with fossil Diesel fuel to produce mixtures with low cetane numbers (26-36) suitable for PPC. The blends were then tested in a single cylinder light duty (LD) engine. To optimize combustion, the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) level, lambda, and injection strategy were tuned.

Humid air motor (HAM) is an engine operated with humidified inlet charge. System simulations study on HAM showed the waste heat recovery potential over a conventional system. An HAM setup was constructed, to comprehend the potential benefits in real-time, the HAM setup was built around a 13-litre six cylinder Volvo diesel engine. The HAM engine process is explained in detail in this paper. Emission analysis is also performed for all three modes of operation. The experiments were carried out at part load operating point of the engine to understand the effects of humidified charge on combustion, efficiency, and emissions. Experiments were conducted without EGR, with EGR, and with humidified inlet charge. These three modes of operation provided the potential benefits of each system. Exhaust heat was used for partial humidification process. Results show that HAM operation, without compromising on efficiency, reduces NOx and soot significantly over the engine operated without EGR.

The engine concept partially premixed combustion (PPC) has proved higher gross indicated efficiency compared to conventional diesel combustion engines. The relatively simple implementation of the concept is an advantage, however, high gas exchange losses has made its use challenging in multi-cylinder heavy duty engines. With high rates of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to dilute the charge and hence limit the combustion rate, the resulting exhaust temperatures are low. The selected boost system must therefore be efficient which could lead to large, complex and costly solutions. In the presented work experiments and modelling were combined to evaluate different turbocharger configurations for the PPC concept. Experiments were performed on a multi-cylinder engine. The engine was modified to incorporate long route EGR and a single-stage turbocharger, however, with compressed air from the building being optionally supplied to the compressor.

In this paper, a parametric analysis on the main engine calibration parameters applied on gasoline Partially Premixed Combustion (PPC) is performed. Theoretically, the PPC concept permits to improve both the engine efficiencies and the NOx-soot trade-off simultaneously compared to the conventional diesel combustion. This work is based on the design of experiments (DoE), statistical approach, and investigates on the engine calibration parameters that might affect the efficiencies and the emissions of a gasoline PPC. The full factorial DoE analysis based on three levels and three factors (33 factorial design) is performed at three engine operating conditions of the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycles (WLTC). The pilot quantity (Qpil), the crank angle position when 50% of the total heat is released (CA50), and the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) factors are considered. The goal is to identify an engine calibration with high efficiency and low emissions.

In this paper, a control-oriented soot model was developed for real-time soot prediction and combustion condition optimization in a gasoline Partially Premixed Combustion (PPC) Engine. PPC is a promising combustion concept that achieves high efficiency, low soot and NOx emissions simultaneously. However, soot emissions were found to be significantly increased with high EGR and pilot injection, therefore a predictive soot model is needed for PPC engine control. The sensitivity of soot emissions to injection events and late-cycle heat release was investigated on a multi-cylinder heavy duty gasoline PPC engine, which indicated main impact factors during soot formation and oxidation processes. The Hiroyasu empirical model was modified according to the sensitivity results, which indicated main influences during soot formation and oxidation processes. By introducing additional compensation factors, this model can be used to predict soot emissions under pilot injection.

A novel 0-D Probability Density Function (PDF) based approach for the modelling of Diesel combustion using tabulated chemistry is presented. The Direct Injection Stochastic Reactor Model (DI-SRM) by Pasternak et al. has been extended with a progress variable based framework allowing the use of a pre-calculated auto-ignition table. Auto-ignition is tabulated through adiabatic constant pressure reactor calculations. The tabulated chemistry based implementation has been assessed against the previously presented DI-SRM version by Pasternak et al. where chemical reactions are solved online. The chemical mechanism used in this work for both, online chemistry run and table generation, is an extended version of the scheme presented by Nawdial et al. The main fuel species are n-decane, α-methylnaphthalene and methyl-decanoate giving a size of 463 species and 7600 reactions.