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Material formability is a very important aspect in the automotive stamping, which must be tested for the success of manufacturing. One of the most important sheet metal formability parameters for the stamping is the edge tear-ability. In this paper, a novel test method has been present to test the aluminum sheet edge tear-ability with 3D digital image correlation (DIC) system. The newly developed test specimen and fixture design are also presented. In order to capture the edge deformation and strain, sample's edge surface has been sprayed with artificial speckle. A standard MTS tensile machine was used to record the tearing load and displacement. Through the data processing and evaluation of sequence image, testing results are found valid and reliable. The results show that the 3D DIC system with double CCD can effectively carry out sheet edge tear deformation. The edge tearing test method is found to be a simple, reliable, high precision, and able to provide useful results.

Edge flanging represents one of the forming modes employed in multistage forming, and advanced high strength steels (AHSS) are more prone to edge cracking during sheared edge flanging than the conventional high strength steels (HSS) and mild steels. The performance of the sheared edge in flanging operation depends on the remaining ductility of the material in the sheared edge after the work hardening (WH) and damage produced by blanking and subsequent forming operations. Therefore, it is important to analyze the effect of work hardening produced by blanking and subsequent forming operations prior to edge flanging on the edge flanging performance. In this study, the effect of different forming operation sequences prior to edge flanging on the edge flanging performance was analyzed for a dual phase 780 steel.

Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) are widely used in the automotive industry for various applications especially for structural and safety parts. One of the concerns for AHSS in stamping operations is edge fracture originating from sheared blanked edges. This type of failure cannot be predicted by computer simulations using the conventional forming limit as the failure criterion. The reason for this is that edge damage produced by the blanking operation is not incorporated into the computer models to properly simulate the material edge formability. This study presents a method to evaluate edge damage in terms of the residual stress at the sheared edge produced by the blanking operation. The method uses the level and distribution of edge strain hardening (ESH) through the material thickness as an index to characterize the edge damage caused by the shearing operation.

Strain rate sensitivity is an important material property in the formability of sheet metal. In this study, strain rate sensitivity is evaluated for several different grades of steel. Strain rate sensitivity varies from 0.01 to 0.022 for the steels tested. It was found that formable steels such as IF and AKDQ steels have both high n-value (strain hardening) and m-value (strain rate sensitivity). Positive strain rate sensitivity results in a significant increase in the yield strength and tensile strength at higher strain rates. The n-value decreases with strain rate for all of the steels. The total elongation decreases slightly with strain rate for the lower strength steels but is constant or even increases slightly with strain rate for high strength steels. For a typical AKDQ steel, the increase in yield strength can be as high as 43% for an increase in strain rate from 0.002 /s to 2.0 /s.

The formability window of a material depends upon the forming limit and its strain distribution ability. For two materials with the same forming limit, the formability performance is governed by their strain distribution ability. In this study, strain hardening behavior of different strength steels was investigated using a uniaxial tension test and the forming limit was studied using both Marciniak cup and dome tests. The n-value of steels varies with strain. Different strain hardening behaviors are found between mild steels and high strength steels. Strain distribution ability of steels increases with the increase in the overall n-value. The peak n-value at a low strain level enhances the strain distribution ability of the steel. It has been shown from both theoretical and experimental studies that a constant thickness strain line exists on the left side of the forming limit curve.

Springback is a major concern in stamping of advanced high strength steels (AHSS). The existing computer simulation technology has difficulty predicting this phenomenon accurately even though it is well developed for formability simulations. Great efforts made in recent years to improve springback predictions have achieved noticeable progress in the computational capability and accuracy. In this work, springback simulation studies are conducted using FEA software LS-DYNA®. Various parametric sensitivity studies are carried out and key variables affecting the springback prediction accuracy are identified. Recently developed simulation technologies in LS-DYNA® are implemented including dynamic effect minimization, smooth tool contact and newly developed nonlinear isotropic/kinematic hardening material models. Case studies on lab-scale and full-scale industrial parts are provided and the predicted springback results are compared to the experimental data.

Material constitutive modeling is an important aspect in the continuous improvement process for sheet metal forming simulation and analysis. In this study, a sensitivity study of material constitutive parameters on forming simulation results is carried out for two different sheet metal parts. Three different yield criteria are evaluated in the simulation including isotropic yield criterion, Hill's 1948 anisotropic yield criterion and Barlat's non-quadratic anisotropic yield criterion. It is found that the forming results depend upon the yield criterion used in the simulation. Both thinning and stress in the formed part are very sensitive to the change in anisotropy value (r-value). Effects of strain rate sensitivity of a material on forming results are demostrated through the use of two different stress and strain data from different tensile speeds. It is also found that forming results such as thinning are very sensitive to the strain hardening behavior of the material.

In previous investigations, it has been shown that the dent resistance of an auto body panel depends upon the yield strength of the material. However, it is known that the yield strength of steel increases with prestrain due to strain hardening. Panel design and material selection based on the material properties obtained from unstrained sheet steels may lead to inaccurate prediction of the dent resistance of the formed panel. In this study, the effect of prestrain on the static dent resistance of auto body panels was investigated. Using existing empirical relationships between dent resistance and panel properties, it was found that the static dent resistance of an auto panel depends not only on the part geometry and material properties but also on the strain level in the panel. The improvement in dent resistance resulting from a material change from an AKDQ steel to a bake hardenable steel or a high strength steel was determined at different strain levels.

More and more advanced high strength steels (AHSS) such as dual phase steels and TRIP steels are implemented in automotive components due to their superior crash performance and vehicle weight reduction capabilities. Recent trends show increased applications of higher strength grades such as 780/800 MPa and 980/1000 MPa tensile strength for crash sensitive components to meet more stringent safety regulations in front crash, side impact and roll-over situations. Several issues related to AHSS stamping have been raised during implementation such as springback, stretch bending fracture with a small radius to thickness ratio, edge cracking, etc. It has been shown that the failure strains in the stretch bending fracture and edge cracking can be significantly lower than the predicted forming limits, and no failure criteria are currently available to predict these failures.

Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) have been widely accepted as a material of choice in the automotive industry to balance overall vehicle weight and stringent vehicle crash test performance targets. Combined with efficient use of geometry and load paths through shape and topology optimization, AHSS has enabled vehicle manufacturers to obtain the highest possible ratings in safety evaluations by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). In this study, vehicle CAE side impact models were used to evaluate three side impact crash test conditions (IIHS side impact, NHTSA LINCAP and FMVSS 214 side pole) and the IIHS roof strength test condition and to identify several key components affecting the side impact test performance. HyperStudy® optimization software and LS-DYNA® nonlinear finite element software were utilized for shape and gauge optimization.

The issue of cost and weight reduction at optimum car crash safety is a driving force behind the growing use of advanced high strength steels, particularly in Europe and Japan. Recent developments in the availability of high strength steel (HSS) sheets in North America; in particular transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels, offer an attractive option to the automotive designer for weight reduction and improved safety performance. For example, the use of TRIP steels, as opposed to more conventional steel products such as high strength low alloy (HSLA), in some applications may result in up to 40% part weight reduction at similar vehicle crash performance. When the excellent formability of TRIP steel is considered at product design stage, it may also lead to reducing part count and tooling cost. In this paper the formability of TRIP steels of various gauges is assessed. Experimental forming limit curves (FLCs) are determined for T600 grade.

The issue of improving car crash energy management and maintaining cost and weight reduction are the driving forces behind the growing use of advanced high strength steels, particularly in Europe and Japan. Recent developments in the manufacture of high strength steel (HSS) sheets in North America, in particular Dual Phase (DP) steels, offers an attractive option to the automotive designer for weight reduction and improved safety performance. For example, the use of dual phase steels, as opposed to more conventional steel products such as high strength low alloys (HSLA), in some cases may result in up to 40% part weight reduction at similar vehicle crash performance. In this paper the formability of commercially produced hot-dipped dual phase steels of various gages and grades is assessed. Forming Limit Curves (FLCs) are determined for commercial DP590 and DP780 grades. These FLCs were compared to the conventional ASM FLCs calculated from n-value and sheet thickness.

The front rail plays a very important role in vehicle crash. Trigger holes are commonly used to control frame crush mode due to their simple manufacturing process and flexibility for late changes in the product development phase. Therefore, a study, including CAE and testing, was conducted on a production front rail to understand the effects of trigger hole shape, size and orientation. The trigger hole location in the front rail also affects crash performance. Therefore, the effect of trigger hole location on front rail crash behavior was studied, and understanding these effects is the main objective of this study. A tapered front rail produced from 1.7 mm thick DP600 steel was used for the trigger hole location investigation. Front rails with different trigger spacing and sizes were tested using VIA sled test facility and the crash progress was simulated using a commercial code RADIOSS. The strain rate, welding and forming effects were incorporated in the front rail modeling.

This paper introduces an industrial application of digital image correlation technique on the measurement of aluminum edge stretching limit. In this study, notch-shape aluminum coupons with three different pre-strain conditions are tested. The edge stretching is proceeded by standard MTS machine. A dual-camera 3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system is used for the full field measurement of strain distribution in the thickness direction. Selected air brush is utilized to form a random distributed speckle pattern on the edge of sheet metal. A pair of special optical lens systems are used to observe the small measurement edge area. From the test results, it demonstrate that refer to the notched coupon thickness, pre-tension does not affect the fracture limit; refer to the virgin sheet thickness, the average edge stretch thinning limits show a consistent increasing trend as the pre-stretch strain increased.

Accurate determination of the forming limit strain of aluminum sheet metal is an important topic which has not been fully solved by industry. Also, the effects of draw beads (enhanced forming limit behaviors), normally reported on steel sheet metals, on aluminum sheet metal is not fully understood. This paper introduces an experimental study on draw bead effects on aluminum sheet metals by measuring the forming limit strain zero (FLD0) of the sheet metal. Two kinds of aluminum, AL 6016-T4 and AL 5754-0, are used. Virgin material, 40% draw bead material and 60% draw bead material conditions are tested for each kind of aluminum. Marciniak punch tests were performed to create a plane strain condition. A dual camera Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system was used to record and measure the deformation distribution history during the punch test. The on-set necking timing is determined directly from surface shape change. The FLD0 of each test situation is reported in this article.

Because of their excellent crash energy absorption capacity, dual phase (DP) steels are gradually replacing conventional High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels for critical crash components in order to meet the more stringent vehicle crash safety regulations. To achieve optimal axial and bending crush performance using DP steels for crash components designed for crash energy absorption and/or intrusion resistance applications, the cross sections need to be optimized. Correlated crush simulation models were employed for the cross-section study. The models were developed using non-linear finite element code LS-DYNA and correlated to dynamic and quasi-static axial and bending crush tests on hexagonal and octagonal cross-sections made of DP590 steel. Several design concepts were proposed, the axial and bending crush performance in DP780 and DP980 were compared, and the potential mass savings were discussed.

Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) are replacing conventional high strength low-alloyed steels (HSLA) in crash sensitive body in white (BIW) applications. Along with innovative product design, they offer superior crash energy management and vehicle weight reduction potential. However, Controlling springback and dimensional accuracy is one of the major concerns in manufacturing AHSS parts. One of the most effective springback control techniques is to design a part with added geometric features such as side stiffening beads, state beads, top hat beads, and embossments, etc. at the product design stage. On the other hand, product design communities tend to believe that the above listed features may result in premature crash initiation in the part. This paper uses an innovative and experimentally verified finite element method (FEM) for crash sensitive component design and optimization.

Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) have been implemented in the automotive industry to balance the requirements for vehicle crash safety, emissions, and fuel economy. With lower ductility compared to conventional steels, the fracture behavior of AHSS components has to be considered in vehicle crash simulations to achieve a reliable crashworthiness prediction. Without considering the fracture behavior, component fracture cannot be predicted and subsequently the crash energy absorbed by the fractured component can be over-estimated. In full vehicle simulations, failure to predict component fracture sometimes leads to less predicted intrusion. In this paper, the feasibility of using computer simulations in predicting fracture during crash deformation is studied.

Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) along with innovative design and manufacturing processes are effective ways to improve crash energy management. Crash trigger hole is another technology which can been used on front rails for controlling crash buckling mode, avoiding crash mode instability and minimizing variations in crash mode due to imperfections in materials, part geometry, manufacturing, and assembly processes etc. In this study, prototyped crash columns with different trigger hole shapes, sizes and locations were physically tested in frontal crash impact tests. A corresponding crash computer simulation model was then created to perform the correlation study. The testing data, such as crash force-displacement curves and dynamic crash modes, were used to verify the FEA crash model and to study the trigger sensitivity and effects on front rail crash performance.

Automotive structural parts made out of Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) are often produced in a multistage forming process using progressive dies or transfer dies. During each forming stage the steel is subjected to work hardening, which affects the formability of the steel in the subsequent forming operation. Edge flanging and in-plane edge stretching operations are forming modes that are typically employed in the last stage of the multistage forming processes. In this study, the multistage forming process was simulated by pre-straining a DP980 steel in a biaxial strain path with various strain levels followed by edge flanging and in-plane edge stretching. The biaxial prestrains were obtained using the Marciniak stretch test and edge flanging and in-plane edge stretching were accomplished by the hole expansion test using a flat punch and a conical punch, respectively.