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The amount of residual gas present in the cylinder has a well documented effect on the combustion event at idle. The high levels of burnt gas present at low engine speed leads to significant cyclic variability. This paper presents research which indicates that the temperature of the residual gas, which can vary from event to event depending on the spark timing, also has a significant effect on the combustion torque. The more the spark timing is retarded from MBT timing, the more thermal energy is present in the exhaust gas. The idle speed control strategy typically varies the spark to give fast torque actuation for good speed regulation and hence the temperature of the residual gas may change significantly within the space of a few events. The paper shows evidence of the phenomenon (with fixed engine speed and air mass flow) and discusses possible causes. It then proceeds to develop a dynamic model for the behaviour.

This paper is concerned with the Residual Gas Fraction measurement and estimation on a Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine. A novel in-cylinder gas sampling technique was employed to obtain cyclic dynamic measurements of CO2 concentration in the compression stroke and in combination with CO2 concentration measurements in the exhaust stroke, cyclic Residual Gas Fraction was measured. The measurements were compared to estimations from a physical, 4-cylinder, single-zone model of the HCCI cycle and good agreement was found in steady engine running conditions. Some form of oscillating behaviour that HCCI exhibits because of exhaust gas coupling was studied and the model was modified to simulate this behaviour.

This paper describes a system for real-time smoke detection in diesel engines. Preliminary results are presented from a very simple sensor which detects the net charge level on smoke particles. There appears to be a useful correlation between the peak charge level and the Bosch smoke number. The mechanism by which the particulates is discussed, though no firm conclusions are reached.

The parameterization of variable geometry turbochargers for mean-value modeling is typically based on compressor and turbine flow and efficiency maps provided by the supplier. At low turbocharger speeds, and hence low airflows, the heat exchange via the turbocharger housing affects the temperature-based measurements of the efficiencies. Therefore, the low-speed operating regime of the turbocharger is excluded from the supplied maps and mean-value models mainly rely on extrapolation into this region, which is regularly met in emission drive cycles, and hence of significance. This paper presents experimental data from a 2.0-liter turbocharged common-rail diesel engine. While the flow maps extend from the high-speed region in a natural way, the efficiency maps are severely affected by the heat transfer effect. It is argued that this effect should be included in the mean-value model.

This paper describes an examination of the origin of the response of a real-time exhaust particle sensor. The sensor works by detecting the net electrical charge carried by diesel exhaust particles emitted during exhaust blow-down. The distribution of charge on these particles has been measured using an electrical mobility analysis system. The results show that the exhaust particles are highly charged and that their charge distributions are nearly symmetrical. The sensor signal results from a slight departure from this symmetry. The results suggest that most of the charge on the exhaust particles results from bipolar charging by flame ions during combustion, but that the net charge detected by the sensor results from surface interactions which some of the larger particles undergo during exhaust blowdown.

When gas sample is continuously drawn from the cylinder of an internal combustion engine, the sample that appears at the end of the sampling system corresponds to the in-cylinder content sometime ago because of the finite transit time which is a function of the cylinder pressure history. This variable delay causes a dispersion of the sample signal and makes the interpretation of the signal difficult An unsteady flow analysis of a typical sampling system was carried out for selected engine loads and speeds. For typical engine operation, a window in which the delay is approximately constant may be found. This window gets smaller with increase in engine speed, with decrease in load, and with the increase in exit pressure of the sampling system.

This paper presents experimental data showing unexpected transient behaviour in several production universal exhaust gas oxygen (UEGO) sensors. The spike-like transients occur when passing through the stoichiometric point, and are particularly significant when passing from rich to lean. The paper illustrates how the spikes are affected by exhaust gas flow rate, deviation of air-to-fuel ratio (AFR) from stoichiometry, and rate of change of AFR while passing through stoichiometry. The spikes are most sensitive to the rate at which AFR passes through stoichiometry. Brief discussions on possible causes for the spikes, and on undesirable consequences for feedback control applications, are included.

A novel method of measuring cylinder gas temperature in an internal combustion engine cylinder is introduced. The physical basis for the technique is that the flow rate through an orifice is a function of the temperature of the gas flowing through the orifice. Using a pressure transducer in the cylinder, and another in a chamber connected to the cylinder via an orifice, it is shown how the cylinder temperature can be determined with useful sensitivity. In this paper the governing equations are derived, which show that the heat transfer characteristics of the chamber are critical to the performance of the system, and that isothermal or adiabatic conditions give the optimum performance. For a typical internal combustion engine, it is found that the pre-compression cylinder temperature is related to the chamber pressure late in the compression process with sensitivity of the order of 0.005 bar/K.

Two new techniques are introduced for measuring the residual gas fraction in internal combustion engines. Both techniques use a fast chemiluminescent detection (CLD) type NO sensor. The measurement is made in real-time and requires a single misfire of the engine. Development of the techniques revealed several unexpected, but interesting effects; the results obtained show good agreement with existing knowledge.

In the study of mixture motion in an I.C. engine it is desirable to observe the development of flow structures at reduced speed, in order to facilitate data capture. In this paper the use of high molecular weight gases to achieve dynamic similarity with real engine operating conditions at very much reduced engine speeds is examined. The general constraints required to achieve full similarity are discussed, as are the implications for the choice of gas mixtures. It is argued that acceptable similarity can be obtained using a common fluorocarbon, and gas flow motions can be tracked using conventional video equipment and large (20 μm) microballoon seeds.

This paper describes a system for knock detection in automobile engines using the spark plug. Operation is based on detection of the effect of the characteristic pressure fluctuations in the cylinder on the conductivity of the slightly ionized combustion gases in the vicinity of the plug gap. A signal processing method is described which gives adequate signal to noise ratio up to high engine speed.

Partially premixed compression ignition (PPCI) engines operating with a low temperature highly homogeneous charge have been demonstrated previously using conventional diesel fuel. The short ignition delay of conventional diesel fuel requires high fuel injection pressures to achieve adequate premixing along with high levels of EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) to achieve low NOx emissions. Low load operating regions are typified by substantial emissions of CO and HC and there exists an upper operating load limitation due to very high rates of in-cylinder gas pressure rise. In this study mixtures of gasoline and diesel fuel were investigated using a multi-cylinder light duty diesel engine. It was found that an increased proportion of gasoline fuel reduced smoke emissions at higher operating loads through an increase in charge premixing resulting from an increase in ignition delay and higher fuel volatility.

Highly homogeneous compression ignition is difficult to achieve in a direct injection diesel engine. The difficulty of achieving adequate fuel vaporization and the problems of fuel spray wall impingement are the main factors. Limitation of the maximum operating load results from high rates of pressure rise that occur in this combustion regime. The levels of HC and CO emissions are raised substantially when compared with conventional combustion and remain a significant emission factor. In this study, two methods of achieving highly homogeneous combustion in a direct injection diesel engine were investigated, Nissan MK type and early injection. The effects of fuel injection pressure, injection timing, EGR level, EGR cooler efficiency and compression ratio were examined using a conventional 4 cylinder 2.0L common rail diesel engine with 18.4:1 and 14.4:1 compression ratios.

The objective of this study was to examine the operating characteristics of a light duty multi cylinder compression ignition engine with regular gasoline fuel at low engine speed and load. The effects of fuel stratification by means of multiple injections as well as the sensitivity of auto-ignition and burn rate to intake pressure and temperature are presented. The measurements used in this study included gaseous emissions, filter smoke opacity and in-cylinder indicated information. It was found that stable, low emission operation was possible with raised intake manifold pressure and temperature, and that fuel stratification can lead to an increase in stability and a reduced reliance on increased temperature and pressure. It was also found that the auto-ignition delay sensitivity of gasoline to intake temperature and pressure was low within the operating window considered in this study.

A novel Fast Response Chemiluminescence Detector and a Fast Flame Ionization detector have been used to examine the instantaneous NO and unburnt hydrocarbon concentration in the cylinder and exhaust port of a DI Diesel engine. The in-cylinder results indicate very high levels of NO in the premixed phase of combustion, followed by generally lower levels during the diffusion burning phase. Hydrocarbon signals also indicate significant detail. The in-cylinder uHC signal is consistent with the probe location being between two of the fuel sprays. Both in-cylinder and exhaust results indicate rather high cyclic variability in the NO levels at steady conditions. Variations in the timing and structure of the exhaust uHC signal during the valve open period with load may give insight into the fuel spray/air motion.

Recent work has investigated the use of O₂ concentration in the intake manifold as a control variable for diesel engines. It has been recognized as a very good indicator of NOX emissions especially during transient operation, however, much of the work is concentrated on estimating the O₂ concentration as opposed to measuring it. This work investigates Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen (UEGO) sensors and their potential to be used for such measurements. In previous work it was shown that these sensors can be operated in a controlled pressure environment such that their response time is of the order 10 ms. In this paper, it is shown how the key causes of variation (and therefore potential sources of error) in sensor output, namely, pressure and temperature are largely mitigated by operating the sensors in such an environment. Experiments were undertaken on a representative light-duty diesel engine using modified UEGO sensors in the intake and exhaust system.

In HCCI engines, the Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR) and Residual Gas Fraction (RGF) are difficult to control during the SI-HCCI-SI transition, and this may result in incomplete combustion and/or high pressure raise rates. As a result, there may be undesirably high engine load fluctuations. The objectives of this work are to further understand this process and develop control methods to minimize these load fluctuations. This paper presents data on instantaneous AFR and RGF measurements, both taken by novel experimental techniques. The data provides an insight into the cyclic AFR and RGF fluctuations during the switch. These results suggest that the relatively slow change in the intake Manifold Air Pressure (MAP) and actuation time of the Variable Valve Timing (VVT) are the main causes of undesired AFR and RGF fluctuations, and hence an unacceptable Net IMEP (NIMEP) fluctuation. We also found large cylinder-to-cylinder AFR variations during the transition.

The effect of a variable camshaft timing (VCT) disturbance on air-to-fuel ratio (AFR) signal is investigated for a twin-independent (TI) VCT engine. Different types of VCT disturbances on AFR signal are investigated. Gaseous fuel experiments are performed in addition to conventional petrol fuel experiments to show that not all the transient VCT disturbances acting on AFR are due to changes in air path dynamics. Experiments show that varying exhaust valve closing (EVC) timing has a significant effect on the air path dynamics and is an important cause of transient AFR deviations. However varying EVC does not affect the fuel puddle significantly. On the other hand varying inlet valve opening (IVO) timing has a strong effect on the fuel puddle size and is also an important cause of transient AFR deviations. Thus for superior transient AFR control in TI-VCT engines, it is essential to model not only the effects of valve timings on air path dynamics but also on the fuel path dynamics.

Models often use time rather than strokes (crank-angle) as the independent variable to describe engine dynamics despite the fact that the dynamics of an internal combustion engine are intrinsically linked to the combustion events. In this paper, two models are developed in parallel in which not only the independent variable is changed but the notion of mass flows as well: flows are in [g/s] for the time-based model and in [g/st] for the event-based model. Both models are of the same computational complexity and show the same accuracy in validation. The investigation of the model properties shows that variations in the flow-related parameters are reduced by a factor of two to five for the event-based model. However, those of the crankshaft dynamics are increased. It is concluded that the model should be chosen in context of the control system to be designed.

Common-rail fuel injection systems on modern light-duty diesel engines are effectively able to respond instantaneously to changes in the demanded injection quantity. In contrast, the air-system is subject to significantly slower dynamics, primarily due to filling/emptying effects in the manifolds and turbocharger inertia. The behavior of the air-path in a diesel engine is therefore the main limiting factor in terms of engine-out emissions during transient operation. This paper presents a simple mean-value model for the air-path during throttled operation, which is used to design a feed-forward controller that delivers very rapid changes in the in-cylinder charge properties. The feed-forward control action is validated using a state-of-the-art sampling system that allows true cycle-by-cycle measurement of the in-cylinder CO₂ concentration.