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Hydrogen engines are currently considered as a viable solution to preserve the internal combustion engine as a power unit for vehicle propulsion. In particular, lean-burn gasoline Spark-Ignition (SI) engines have been a major subject of investigations due to the reduced emission levels and high thermodynamic efficiency. This strategy is suitable for the purpose of passenger car applications and cannot be tailored in the field of high performance engine, where the air mass delivered would require oversized turbocharging systems or more complex charging solutions. For this reason, the range of stoichiometric feeding condition is explored in the high performance engine, leading to the consequent issue of abatement of pollutant emissions. In this work a 1D model will be applied to the modeling of a V8 engine fueled with DI of hydrogen. The engine has been derived by a gasoline configuration and adapted to hydrogen in such a way to keep the same performance.

The transportation sector still depends on conventional engines in many countries as the alternative technologies are not mature enough to reduce carbon footprints in society. The four-stroke diesel engines, primarily used for heavy-duty applications, need either high intake boosting or a large bore to produce higher torque and power output. There is an alternative where a four-stroke engine operated in two-stroke mode with the help of a fully flexible variable valve actuation (VVA) system can achieve similar power density without raising the intake boosting or engine size. A fully flexible VVA is required to control the valve events (lift, timing, and durations) independently so that the four-stroke events can be completed in one cycle. In this study, 1D-3D CFD coupled simulations were performed to develop a gas exchange process for better air entrapment in the cylinder and evacuate the exhaust products simultaneously.

Until recently, the application of the detailed chemistry approach as a predictive tool for engine modeling has been sort of a “taboo” for different reasons, mainly because of an exaggerated rigor to the chemistry/turbulence interaction modeling. In terms of this ideology, if the interaction cannot be simulated properly, the detailed chemistry approach makes no sense. The novelty of the proposed methodology is the coupling of a generalized partially stirred reactor, PaSR, model with the high efficiency numerics to treat detailed oxidation kinetics of hydrocarbon fuels. In terms of this approach, chemical processes are assumed to proceed in two successive steps: the reaction follows after the micro-mixing is completed on a sub-grid scale.

An investigation of the possibility to extend the 3-dimensional modeling capabilities from conventional diesel to the HCCI combustion mode simulation was carried out. Experimental data was taken from a single cylinder engine operating with early injections for the HCCI and a split-injection (early pilot+main) for the high speed Diesel engine operation. To properly phase the HCCI mode in the experiments, high amounts of cooled EGR and a decreased compression ratio were used. In numerical simulation performed using KIVA3-V code, modified to incorporate the Detailed Chemistry Approach the same conditions were reproduced. Special attention is paid on the analysis of the events leading up to the auto-ignition, which was reasonably well predicted.

The continuous pursuit of higher combustion efficiencies, as well as the possible usage of synthetic fuels with different properties than fossil-ones, require reliable and low-cost numerical approaches to support and speed-up engines industrial design. In this context, SI engines operated with homogeneous ultra-lean mixtures both characterized by a classical ignition configuration or equipped with an active prechamber represent the most promising solutions. In this work, for the classical ignition arrangement, a 3DCFD strategy to model the impact of the ignition system type on the CCV is developed using the RANS approach for turbulence modelling. The spark-discharge is modelled through a set of Lagrangian particles, whose velocity is modified with a zero-divergence perturbation at each discharge event, then evolved according to the Simplified Langevin Model (SLM) to simulate stochastic interactions with the surrounding gas flow.

The demand of game-changing technologies to improve efficiency and abate emissions of heavy-duty trucks and off-road vehicles promoted the development of novel engine concepts. The Recuperated Split-Cycle (R-SC) engine allows to recover the exhaust gases energy into the air intake by separating the compression and combustion stages into two different but connected cylinders: the compressor and expander, respectively. The result is a potential increase of the engine thermal efficiency. Accordingly, the 3D-computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling of the gas exchange process and the combustion evolution inside the expander becomes essential to control and optimize the R-SC engine concept. This work aims to address the most challenging numerical aspects encountered in a 3D numerical simulation of an R-SC engine.

48V mild hybrid powertrains are promising technologies for cost-effective compliance with future CO2 emissions standards. Current 48V powertrains with integrated belt starter generators (P0) with downsized engines achieve CO2 emissions of 95 g/km in the NEDC. However, to reach 75 g/km, it may be necessary to combine new 48V powertrain architectures with alternative fuels. Therefore, this paper compares CO2 emissions from different 48V powertrain architectures (P0, P1, P2, P3) with different electric power levels under various driving cycles (NEDC, WLTC, and RTS95). A numerical model of a compact class passenger car with a 48V powertrain was created and experimental fuel consumption maps for engines running on different fuels (gasoline, Diesel, E85, CNG) were used to simulate its CO2 emissions. The simulation results were analysed to determine why specific powertrain combinations were more efficient under certain driving conditions.

Nowadays quasi-3D approaches are included in many commercial and research 1D numerical codes, in order to increase their simulation accuracy in presence of complex shape 3D volumes, e.g. plenums and silencers. In particular, these are regarded as valuable approaches for application during the design phase of an engine, for their capability of predicting non-planar waves motion and, on the other hand, for their low requirements in terms of computational runtime. However, the generation of a high-quality quasi-3D computational grid is not always straightforward, especially in case of complex elements, and can be a time-consuming operation, making the quasi-3D tool a less attractive option. In this work, a quasi-3D module has been implemented on the basis of the open-source CFD code OpenFOAM and coupled with the 1D code GASDYN.

Active prechamber combustion systems for SI engines represent a feasible and effective solution in reducing fuel consumption and pollutant emissions for both marine and ground heavy-duty engines. However, reliable and low-cost numerical approaches need to be developed to support and speed-up their industrial design considering their geometry complexity and the involved multiple flow length scales. This work presents a CFD methodology based on the RANS approach for the simulation of active prechamber spark-ignition engines. To reduce the computational time, the gas exchange process is computed only in the prechamber region to correctly describe the flow and mixture distributions, while the whole cylinder geometry is considered only for the power-cycle (compression, combustion and expansion). Outside the prechamber the in-cylinder flow field at IVC is estimated from the measured swirl ratio.

The use of virtual prototyping early in the design stage of a product has gained popularity due to reduced cost and time to market. The state of the art in vehicle simulation has reached a level where full vehicles are analyzed through simulation but major difficulties continue to be present in interfacing the vehicle model with accurate powertrain models and in developing adequate formulations for the contact between tire and terrain (specifically, scenarios such as tire sliding on ice and rolling on sand or other very deformable surfaces). The proposed work focuses on developing a ground vehicle simulation capability by combining several third party packages for vehicle simulation, tire simulation, and powertrain simulation. The long-term goal of this project consists in promoting the Digital Car idea through the development of a reliable and robust simulation capability that will enhance the understanding and control of off-road vehicle performance.

In order to reduce fuel consumption, companies have been looking at hybridizing vehicles. So far, two main hybridization options have been considered: electric and hydraulic hybrids. Because of light duty vehicle operating conditions and the high energy density of batteries, electric hybrids are being widely used for cars. However, companies are still evaluating both hybridization options for medium and heavy duty vehicles. Trucks generally demand very large regenerative power and frequent stop-and-go. In that situation, hydraulic systems could offer an advantage over electric drive systems because the hydraulic motor and accumulator can handle high power with small volume capacity. This study compares the fuel displacement of class 6 trucks using a hydraulic system compared to conventional and hybrid electric vehicles. The paper will describe the component technology and sizes of each powertrain as well as their overall vehicle level control strategies.

Combustion with knock is an abnormal phenomenon which constrains the engine performance, thermal efficiency and longevity. The advance timing of the ignition system requires it to be updated with respect to fuel octane number variation. The production series engines are calibrated by the manufacturer to run with a special fuel octane number. In the experiment, the engine was operated at different speeds, loads, spark advance timings and consumed commercial gasoline with research octane numbers (RON) 95, 97 and 100. A 1-dimensional validated engine combustion model was run in the GT-Power software to simulate the engine conditions required to define the knock envelope at the same engine operation conditions as experiment. The knock intensity investigation due to spark advance sweep shows that combustion with noise was started after a specific advance ignition timing and the audible knock occur by increasing the advance timing.

Heavy alcohols can be mixed with fossil diesel to produce blended fuels that can be used in diesel engines. Alcohols can be obtained from fossil resources, but can also be produced more sustainably from renewable raw materials. The use of such biofuels can help to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transport sector. This study examines four alcohol/diesel blends each containing one heavy alcohol: n-butanol, iso-butanol, 2-ethyl hexanol and n-octanol. All of the blends where prepared to function as drop-in fuels in existing engines with factory settings. To compensate for the alcohols′ low cetane numbers (CN), a third component with high CN was added to each blend, namely hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). The composition of each mixture was selected to give an overall CN equal to that of fossil diesel fuel.

Modeling plume interaction and collapse for direct-injection gasoline sprays is important because of its impact on fuel-air mixing and engine performance. Nevertheless, the aerodynamic interaction between plumes and the complicated two-phase coupling of the evaporating spray has shown to be notoriously difficult to predict. With the availability of high-speed (100 kHz) Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) experimental data, we compare velocity field predictions between plumes to observe the full temporal evolution leading up to plume merging and complete spray collapse. The target “Spray G” operating conditions of the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) is the focus of the work, including parametric variations in ambient gas temperature. We apply both LES and RANS spray models in different CFD platforms, outlining features of the spray that are most critical to model in order to predict the correct aerodynamics and fuel-air mixing.

A correct prediction of the initial stages of the combustion process in SI engines is of great importance to understand how local flow conditions, fuel properties, mixture stratification and ignition affect the in-cylinder pressure development and pollutant formation. However, flame kernel growth is governed by many interacting processes including energy transfer from the electrical circuit to the gas phase, interaction between the plasma channel and the flow field, transition between different combustion regimes and gas expansion at very high temperatures. In this work, the authors intend to present a comprehensive, multi-dimensional model that can be used to predict the initial combustion stages in SI engines. In particular, the spark channel is represented by a set of Lagrangian particles where each one of them acts as a single flame kernel.

This work presents a comprehensive numerical model for ice accretion and Ice Protection System (IPS) simulation over a 2D component, such as an airfoil. The model is based on the Myers model for ice accretion and extended to include the possibility of a heated substratum. Six different icing conditions that can occur during in-flight ice accretion with an Electro-Thermal Ice Protection System (ETIPS) activated are identified. Each condition presents one or more layers with a different water phase. Depending on the heat fluxes, there could be only liquid water, ice, or a combination of both on the substratum. The possible layers are the ice layer on the substratum, the running liquid film over ice or substratum, and the static liquid film between ice and substratum caused by ice melting. The last layer, which is always present, is the substratum. The physical model that describes the evolution of these layers is based on the Stefan problem. For each layer, one heat equation is solved.

The paper illustrates and validates a novel predictive combustion model for the estimation of performances and pollutant production in CI engines. The numerical methodology was developed by the authors for near real-time applications, while aiming at an accurate description of the air mixing process by means of a multi-zone approach of the air-fuel mass. Charge stratification is estimated via a 2D representation of the fuel spray distribution that is numerically derived by an axial one-dimensional control-volume description of the direct injection. The radial coordinate of each control volume is reconstructed a posteriori by means of a local distribution function. Fuel mass clustered in each zone is further split in ‘liquid’, ‘unburnt’ and ‘burnt’ sub-zones, given the local properties of the fuel spray control volumes with respect to space-time location of modelled ignition delay, liquid length, and flame lift-off.

The three-way-catalyst (TWC) is an essential part of the exhaust aftertreatment system in spark-ignited powertrains, converting nearly all toxic emissions to harmless gasses. The TWC’s conversion efficiency is significantly temperature-dependent, and cold-starts can be the dominating source of emissions for vehicles with frequent start/stops (e.g. hybrid vehicles). In this paper we develop a thermal TWC model and calibrate it with experimental data. Due to the few number of state variables the model is well suited for fast offline simulation as well as subsequent on-line control, for instance using non-linear state-feedback or explicit MPC. Using the model could allow an on-line controller to more optimally adjust the engine ignition timing, the power in an electric catalyst pre-heater, and/or the power split ratio in a hybrid vehicle when the catalyst is not completely hot.

A common fan model to use in automotive under hood simulations is the Multiple Reference Frame (MRF) model and within the industry, for this specific application, this model is well known to under predict performance. In this paper we have examined the possibilities of correcting this deficiency with a simple “speed correction”. This is done by testing and simulating a production fan in the Volvo Fan Test Rig for two operating speeds, 1200 rpm and 2400 rpm. Pressure rise, fan power and static efficiency are presented as functions of volumetric flow rate. The simulations verify that using the MRF model the common behavior of under predicting pressure rise and performance of the fan occur. In addition, this work shows that; although the MRF is not predicting fan performance correctly it constitutes a reliable fan modeling strategy.

Nowadays a great attention is paid to the level and quality of noise radiated from the tailpipe end of intake and exhaust systems, to control the gas dynamic noise emitted by the engine as well as the characteristics of the cabin interior sound. The muffler geometry can be optimized consequently, to attenuate or remark certain spectral components of the engine noise, according to the result expected. Evidently the design of complex silencing systems is a time-consuming operation, which must be carried out by means of concurrent experimental measurements and numerical simulations. In particular, 1D and multiD linear/non-linear simulation codes can be applied to predict the silencer behavior in the time and frequency domain. This paper describes the development of a 1D-multiD integrated approach for the simulation of complex muffler configurations such as reverse chambers with inlet and outlet pipe extensions and perforated silencers with the addition of sound absorbing material.