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This paper quantifies the potential of electric propulsion systems to reduce petroleum use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the 2030 U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet. The propulsion systems under consideration include gasoline hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), fuel-cell hybrid vehicles (FCVs), and battery-electric vehicles (BEVs). ...Well-to-wheel energy and GHG emissions of future vehicle technologies were estimated by integrating the vehicle technology evaluation with assessments of different fuel pathways. ...However, continued reliance on fossil-fuels without effective carbon capture and sequestration for producing electricity and hydrogen constrain the GHG emission and energy reductions to about 60% below that of present-day spark-ignition technology.

Another major finding is that because the TtW component of fuel cell vehicles offer the potential to eliminate greenhouse (GHG) emissions when fueled with hydrogen, a renewable source of hydrogen production will offer the potential of extremely low WtW GHG emissions for fuel cell vehicles. ...Another major finding is that because the TtW component of fuel cell vehicles offer the potential to eliminate greenhouse (GHG) emissions when fueled with hydrogen, a renewable source of hydrogen production will offer the potential of extremely low WtW GHG emissions for fuel cell vehicles. The analysis of the new fuels indicates a 2%-7% TtW reduction in the CO2 equivalent emissions for M85, E85 and CTL (M100). ...For M10, and E10 the reduction of GHG emissions is insignificant, about 1% compared to those of the vehicle running with gasoline.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions ranking approximately corresponds to the total fuel-cycle efficiency ranking. Fuel-cell vehicles are excellent candidates for carbon emissions reductions if methane is the preferred feedstock. ...Fuel-cell vehicles are excellent candidates for carbon emissions reductions if methane is the preferred feedstock. The GHG benefits of petroleum feedstock for fuel-cell vehicles are less certain relative to advanced hybrid ICE vehicles. ...For policy decisions, low emissions of criteria pollutants from fuel-cell vehicles and their less certain GHG and fuel economy benefits (relative to direct-injection hybrid electric vehicles) must be weighed against their earlier state of development.

AETs are imperative to mitigate the twin crisis of environmental degradation and simultaneous fossil fuel depletion, there are wide concerns about GHG emissions which have paved ways for the development and deployment of energy technologies that do not use fossil fuels. ...These technologies would provide tangible benefits in terms of fossil-fuel costs, which are likely to increase as restrictions on GHG emissions are imposed. However, a number of challenges need to be overcome prior to market positioning, and the commercialization of alternative energy technologies which require a staged approach given price and technical risk.

Furthermore, since the aluminum oxidation is completely GHG free and the alumina produced by the reaction can be recycled back to aluminum, the process has a sustainable environmental management.

These analyses appear to differ greatly concerning their perception of the energy benefits of advanced technology vehicles, leading to great uncertainties in estimating full-fuel-cycle (or “well-to-wheel”) greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction potentials and/or fuel feedstock requirements per mile of service. Advanced vehicles include, but are not limited to, advanced gasoline and diesel internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with gasoline, diesel, and compressed natural gas (CNG) ICEs, and various kinds of fuel-cell based vehicles (FCVs), such as direct hydrogen FCVs and gasoline or methanol fuel-based FCVs.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources of energy, being one of the largest fractions of the greenhouse gases (GHG). Hydrogen is indicated as a fuel with potential to replace fossil fuels in the future, mainly because the combustion products are environmentally friendly, with high specific energy, in comparison with other sources of fuel.

Overall however, WTW results indicate that hydrogen produced via the gasification of biomass and its use in a FCV has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by between 75% and 100% and utilize little fossil energy compared to conventional gasoline ICEVs and hydrogen from natural gas FCVs.

When considering the introduction of advanced vehicles, engineers must perform a well-to-wheel (WTW) evaluation to determine the potential impact of a technology on carbon dioxide and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and to establish a basis that can be used to compare other propulsion technology and fuel choices.

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