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Nowadays, green hydrogen can play a crucial role in a successful clean energy transition, thus reaching net zero emissions in the transport sector. Moreover, hydrogen exploitation in internal combustion engines is favoured by its suitable combustion properties and quasi-zero harmful emissions. High flame speeds enable a lean combustion approach, which provides high efficiency and reduces NOx emissions. However, high air flow rates are required to achieve the load levels typical of heavy-duty applications. In this framework, the present study aims to investigate the required boosting system of a 6-cylinder, 13-liter heavy-duty spark ignition engine through 1D numerical simulation. A comparison among various architectures of the turbocharging system and the size of each component is presented, thus highlighting limitations and potentialities of each architecture and providing important insights for the selection of the best turbocharging system.

In recent years, the urgent need to fully exploit the fuel economy potential of the Electrified Vehicles (xEVs) through the optimal design of their Energy Management System (EMS) have led to an increasing interest in Machine Learning (ML) techniques. Among them, Reinforcement Learning (RL) seems to be one of the most promising approaches thanks to its peculiar structure, in which an agent is able to learn the optimal control strategy through the feedback received by a direct interaction with the environment. Therefore, in this study, a new Soft Actor-Critic agent (SAC), which exploits a stochastic policy, was implemented on a digital twin of a state-of-the-art diesel Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) available on the European market. The SAC agent was trained to enhance the fuel economy of the PHEV while guaranteeing its battery charge sustainability.

Nowadays numerical simulations play a major role in the development of future sustainable powertrain thanks to their capability of investigating a wide spectrum of innovative technologies with times and costs significantly lower than a campaign of experimental tests. In such a framework, this paper aims to assess the predictive capabilities of an 1D-CFD engine model developed to support the design and the calibration of the innovative highly efficient spark ignition engine of the PHOENICE (PHev towards zerO EmissioNs & ultimate ICE efficiency) EU H2020 project. As a matter of fact, the availability of a reliable simulation platform is crucial to achieve the project target of 47% peak indicating efficiency, by synergistically exploiting the combination of innovative in-cylinder charge motion, Miller cycle with high compression ratio, lean mixture with cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) and electrified turbocharger.

The role of numerical simulations in the development of innovative and sustainable powertrains is constantly growing thanks to their capabilities to significantly reduce the calibration efforts and to point out potential synergies among different technologies. In such a framework, this paper describes the development of a fully physical 1D-CFD engine model to support the calibration of the highly efficient spark ignition engine of the PHOENICE (PHev towards zerO EmissioNs & ultimate ICE efficiency) EU H2020 project. The availability of a reliable simulation platform is essential to effectively exploit the combination of the several features introduced to achieve the project target of 47% peak gross indicated efficiency, such as SwumbleTM in-cylinder charge motion, Miller cycle combined with high Compression Ratio (CR), lean mixture exploiting cooled low pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) and electrified turbocharging.

The continuous tightening of CO2 emission targets along with the introduction of Real Driving Emissions (RDE) tests make Water Injection (WI) one of the most promising solutions to improve efficiency, enhance performance and reduce emissions of turbocharged high-performance Spark Ignition engines. This technology, by reducing local in-cylinder mixture temperature, enables higher compression ratios, optimal spark timing and stoichiometric combustion over the entire engine operating range. This research activity, therefore, aims to assess the benefits in terms of CO2 emission reduction of a Port Water Injection (PWI) system integrated in a Downsized Turbocharged Direct Injection Spark Ignition (T-DISI) Engine. In this regard, a 1D-CFD model of the engine capable to predict the impact of the water content on both the combustion process and the knock likelihood was firstly developed.

Despite the legislation targets set by several governments of a full electrification of new light-duty vehicle fleets by 2035, the development of innovative, environmental-friendly Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) is still crucial to be on track toward the complete decarbonization of on road-mobility of the future. In such a framework, the PHOENICE (PHev towards zerO EmissioNs & ultimate ICE efficiency) project aims at developing a C SUV-class plug-in hybrid (P0/P4) vehicle demonstrator capable to achieve a -10% fuel consumption reduction with respect to current EU6 vehicle while complying with upcoming EU7 pollutant emissions limits. Such ambitious targets will require the optimization of the whole engine system, exploiting the possible synergies among the combustion, the aftertreatment and the exhaust waste heat recovery systems.

The use of Ducted Fuel Injection (DFI) for attenuating soot formation throughout mixing-controlled diesel combustion has been demonstrated impressively effective both experimentally and numerically. However, the last research studies have highlighted the need for tailored engine calibration and duct geometry optimization for the full exploitation of the technology potential. Nevertheless, the research gap on the response of DFI combustion to the main engine operating parameters has still to be fully covered. Previous research analysis has been focused on numerical soot-targeted duct geometry optimization in constant-volume vessel conditions. Starting from the optimized duct design, the herein study aims to analyze the influence of several engine operating parameters (i.e. rail pressure, air density, oxygen concentration) on DFI combustion, having free spray results as a reference.

In the framework of an increasing demand for a more sustainable mobility, where the fuel consumption reduction is a key driver for the development of innovative internal combustion engines, Turbulent Jet Ignition (TJI) represents one of the most promising solutions to improve the thermal efficiency. However, details concerning turbulent jet assisted combustion are still to be fully captured, and therefore the design and the calibration of efficient TJI systems require the support of reliable simulation tools that can provide additional information not accessible through experiments. To this aim, an experimental investigation combined with a 3D-CFD study was performed to analyze the TJI combustion characteristics in a single-cylinder spark-ignition (SI) engine. Firstly, the model was validated against experiments considering stoichiometric mixture at 3000 rpm, wide open throttle operating conditions.

Nowadays control system development in the automotive industry is evolving rapidly due to several factors. On the one hand legislation tightening is asking for simultaneous emission reduction and efficiency increase, on the other hand the complexity of the powertrain is increasing due to the spreading of electrification. Those factors are pushing for strong design parallelization and frontloading, thus requiring engine calibration to be moved much earlier in the V-Cycle. In this context, this paper shows how, coupling well known physical 1D engine models featuring predictive combustion and emission models with a fully physical aftertreatment system model and longitudinal vehicle model, a powerful virtual test rig can be built. This virtual test rig can be used for powertrain virtual calibration activities with reduced requirement in terms of experimental data.

The high level of electric power available on a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) enables the introduction of electrical auxiliaries in addition or in substitution to the ones currently available on a conventional powertrain. Among these auxiliaries, electric Superchargers (eSC) for the improvement of the vehicle performance or electrically heated catalysts for the reduction of the light-off time of the after-treatment may dramatically affect the Energy Management System (EMS) of an HEV. Moreover, since these devices are only fluid-dynamically, but not mechanically, linked to the powertrain, they are traditionally neglected in the optimization of the powersplit between internal combustion engine and electric machines by the EMS. The aim of the current work is the development of an EMS that is able to consider in real time the overall electric energy consumption of the entire powertrain.

In this paper, a numerical and experimental assessment of post injection potential for soot emissions mitigation in an off-road diesel engine is presented, with the aim of supporting hardware selection and engine calibration processes. As a case study, a prototype off-road 3.4 liters 4-cylinder diesel engine developed by Kohler Engines was selected. In order to explore the possibility to comply with Stage V emission standards without a dedicated aftertreatment for NOx, the engine was equipped with a low pressure cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR), allowing high EGR rates (above 30%) even at high load. To enable the exploitation of such high EGR rates with acceptable soot penalties, a two-stage turbocharger and an extremely high-pressure fuel injection system (up to 3000 bar) were adopted. Moreover, post injections events were also exploited to further mitigate soot emissions with acceptable Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) penalties.

A comprehensive experimental and numerical analysis of two state-of-the-art diesel AfterTreatment Systems (ATS) for automotive applications is presented in this work. Both systems, designed to fulfill Euro 6 emissions regulations standards, consist of a closed-coupled Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) followed by a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) catalyst coated on a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), also known as SCR on Filter (SCRoF or SCRF). While the two systems feature the same Urea Water Solution (UWS) injector, major differences could be observed in the UWS mixing device, which is placed upstream of the SCRoF, whose design represents a crucial challenge due to the severe flow uniformity and compact packaging requirements.

The increasingly demanding targets in terms of CO2 reduction lead to the adoption of engine technologies left so far for innovation. In diesel engines, some of the primary interests in adopting an advanced air management system, as Variable Valve Actuation (VVA), are related to Miller cycle enabling, and valve timing optimization. In this context, a numerical study was carried out in order to evaluate the impact of VVA on passenger car 4-cylinder diesel engine, 1.6 liters. The engine model, developed in GT-SUITE, features a predictive combustion model (DIPulse) and it is coupled with a fully predictive fuel injector model for the simulation of complex injection patterns. 3 different VVA techniques were evaluated, all targeting CO2 reduction: Late Exhaust Valve Opening (LEVO), Exhaust Phasing, and Late Inlet Valve Closure (LIVC) for enabling Miller cycle.

The trend towards powertrain electrification is expected to grow significantly in the next future also for super-cars. The aim of this paper is therefore to assess, through numerical simulation, the impact on both fuel economy and performance of different 48 Volt mild hybrid architectures for a high-performance sport car featuring a Turbocharged Direct Injection Spark Ignition (TDISI) engine. In particular the hybrid functionalities of both a P0 (Belt Alternator Starter - BAS) and a P2 (Flywheel Alternator Starter - FAS) architecture were investigated and optimized for this kind of application through a global optimization algorithm. The analysis pointed out CO2 emission reductions potential of about 6% and 25% on NEDC, 7% and 28% on WLTC for P0 and P2 respectively. From the performance perspective, a 10% reduction in the time-to-torque was highlighted for both architectures in a load step maneuver at 2000 RPM constant speed.

Development trends in modern common rail fuel injection systems (FIS) show dramatically increasing capabilities in terms of optimization of the fuel injection strategy through a constantly increasing number of injection events per engine cycle as well as through the modulation and shaping of the injection rate. In order to fully exploit the potential of the abovementioned fuel injection strategy optimization, numerical simulation can play a fundamental role by allowing the creation of a kind of a virtual test rig, where the input is the fuel injection rate and the optimization targets are the combustion outputs, such as the burn rate, the pollutant emissions, and the combustion noise (CN).

Nowadays, injection rate shaping and multi-pilot events can help to improve fuel efficiency, combustion noise and pollutant emissions in diesel engine, providing high flexibility in the shape of the injection that allows combustion process control. Different strategies can be used in order to obtain the required flexibility in the rate, such as very close pilot injections with almost zero Dwell Time or boot shaped injections with optional pilot injections. Modern Common-Rail Fuel Injection Systems (FIS) should be able to provide these innovative patterns to control the combustion phases intensity for optimal tradeoff between fuel consumption and emission levels.

To comply with Stage IV emission standard for off-road engines, Kohler Engines has developed the 100kW rated KDI 3.4 liters diesel engine, equipped with DOC and SCR. Based on this engine, a research project in collaboration between Kohler Engines, Ricardo, Denso and Politecnico di Torino was carried out to exploit the potential of new technologies to meet the Stage IV and beyond emission standards. The prototype engine was equipped with a low pressure cooled EGR system, two stage turbocharger, high pressure fuel injection system capable of very high injection pressure and DOC+DPF aftertreatment system. Since the Stage IV emission standard sets a 0.4 g/kWh NOx limit for the steady state test cycle (NRSC), that includes full load operating conditions, the engine must be operated with very high EGR rates (above 30%) at very high load.

Nowadays stringent emission regulations are pushing towards new air management strategies like LP-EGR and HP/LP mix both for passenger car and heavy duty applications, increasing the engine control complexity. Within a project in collaboration between Kohler Engines EMEA, Politecnico di Torino, Ricardo and Denso to exploit the potential of EGR-Only technologies, a 3.4 liters KDI 3404 was equipped with a two stage turbocharging system, an extremely high pressure FIS and a low pressure EGR system. The LP-EGR system works in a closed loop control with an intake oxygen sensor actuating two valves: an EGR valve placed downstream of the EGR cooler that regulates the flow area of the bypass between the exhaust line and the intake line, and an exhaust flap to generate enough backpressure to recirculate the needed EGR rate to cut the NOx emission without a specific aftertreatment device.

The need for achieving a fast warm up of the exhaust system has raised in the recent years a growing interest in the adoption of Variable Valve Actuation (VVA) technology for automotive diesel engines. As a matter of fact, different measures can be adopted through VVA to accelerate the warm up of the exhaust system, such as using hot internal Exhaust Gas Recirculation (iEGR) to heat the intake charge, especially at part load, or adopting early Exhaust Valve Opening (eEVO) timing during the expansion stroke, so to increase the exhaust gas temperature during blowdown. In this paper a simulation study is presented evaluating the impact of VVA on the exhaust temperature of a modern light duty 4-cylinder diesel engine, 1.6 liters, equipped with a Variable Geometry Turbine (VGT).

Development trends in modern Common Rail Fuel Injection System (FIS) show dramatically increasing capabilities in terms of optimization of the fuel injection pattern through a constantly increasing number of injection events per engine cycle along with a modulation and shaping of the injection rate. In order to fully exploit the potential of the abovementioned fuel injection pattern optimization, numerical simulation can play a fundamental role by allowing the creation of a kind of a virtual injection rate generator for the assessment of the corresponding engine outputs in terms of combustion characteristics such as burn rate, emission formation and combustion noise (CN). This paper is focused on the analysis of the effects of digitalization of pilot events in the injection pattern on Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), CN and emissions for a EURO 6 passenger car 4-cylinder diesel engine.