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Technical Paper

Analyzing the Expense: Cost Modeling for State-of-the-Art Electric Vehicle Battery Packs

2024-04-09
2024-01-2202
The Battery Performance and Cost Model (BatPaC), developed by Argonne National Laboratory, is a versatile tool designed for lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack engineering. It accommodates user-defined specifications, generating detailed bill-of-materials calculations and insights into cell dimensions and pack characteristics. Pre-loaded with default data sets, BatPaC aids in estimating production costs for battery packs produced at scale (5 to 50 GWh annually). Acknowledging inherent uncertainties in parameters, the tool remains accessible and valuable for designers and engineers. BatPaC plays a crucial role in National Highway Transportation Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regulatory assessments, providing estimated battery pack manufacturing costs and weight metrics for electric vehicles. Integrated with Argonne's Autonomie simulations, BatPaC streamlines large-scale processes, replacing traditional models with lookup tables.
Technical Paper

Experimental and Numerical Momentum Flux Analysis of Jets from a Hydrogen Injector

2024-04-09
2024-01-2616
The use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines is an effective approach to significantly support the reduction of CO2 emissions from the transportation sector using technically affordable solutions. The use of direct injection is the most promising approach to fully exploit hydrogen potential as a clean fuel, while preserving targets in terms of power density and emissions. In this frame, the development of an effective combustion system largely relies on the hydrogen-air mixture formation process, so to adequately control the charge stratification to mitigate pre-ignitions and knock and to minimize NOx formation. Hence, improving capabilities of designing a correct gas jet-air interaction is of paramount importance. In this paper the analysis of the evolution of a high-pressure gas jet produced by a single-hole prototype injector operated with different pressure ratios is presented.
Technical Paper

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of a Swirled Fuel Atomizer for an Aftertreatment Diesel Burner

2023-08-28
2023-24-0106
Emission legislation for light and heavy duty vehicles is requiring a drastic reduction of exhaust pollutants from internal combustion engines (ICE). Achieving a quick heating-up of the catalyst is of paramount importance to cut down cold start emissions and meet current and new regulation requirements. This paper describes the development and the basic characteristics of a novel burner for diesel engines exhaust systems designed for being activated immediately at engine cold start or during vehicle cruise. The burner is comprised of a swirled fuel dosing system, an air system, and an ignition device. The main design characteristics are presented, with a detailed description of the atomization, air-fuel interaction and mixture formation processes. An atomizer prototype has been extensively analyzed and tested in various conditions, to characterize the resulting fuel spray under cold-start and ambient operating conditions.
Technical Paper

Transmission Shifting Analysis and Model Validation for Medium Duty Vehicles

2023-04-11
2023-01-0196
Over the past couple of years, Argonne National Laboratory has tested, analyzed, and validated automobile models for the light duty vehicle class, including several types of powertrains including conventional, hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicles. Argonne’s previous works focused on the light duty vehicle models, but no work has been done on medium and heavy-duty vehicles. This study focuses on the validation of shifting control in advanced automatic transmission technologies for medium duty vehicles by using Argonne’s model-based high-fidelity, forward-looking, vehicle simulation tool, Autonomie. Different medium duty vehicles, from Argonne’s own fleet, including the Ram 2500, Ford F-250 and Ford F-350, were tested with the equipment for OBD (on-board diagnostics) signal data record. For the medium duty vehicles, a workflow process was used to import test data.
Technical Paper

HIL Demonstration of Energy Management Strategy for Real World Extreme Fast Charging Stations with Local Battery Energy Storage Systems

2023-04-11
2023-01-0701
Extreme Fast Charging (XFC) infrastructure is crucial for an increase in electric vehicle (EV) adoption. However, an unmanaged implementation may lead to negative grid impacts and huge power costs. This paper presents an optimal energy management strategy to utilize grid-connected Energy Storage Systems (ESS) integrated with XFC stations to mitigate these grid impacts and peak demand charges. To achieve this goal, an algorithm that controls the charge and discharge of ESS based on an optimal power threshold is developed. The optimal power threshold is determined to carry out maximum peak shaving for given battery size and SOC constraints.
Technical Paper

Road Snow Coverage Estimation Using Camera and Weather Infrastructure Sensor Inputs

2023-04-11
2023-01-0057
Modern vehicles use automated driving assistance systems (ADAS) products to automate certain aspects of driving, which improves operational safety. In the U.S. in 2020, 38,824 fatalities occurred due to automotive accidents, and typically about 25% of these are associated with inclement weather. ADAS features have been shown to reduce potential collisions by up to 21%, thus reducing overall accidents. But ADAS typically utilize camera sensors that rely on lane visibility and the absence of obstructions in order to function, rendering them ineffective in inclement weather. To address this research gap, we propose a new technique to estimate snow coverage so that existing and new ADAS features can be used during inclement weather. In this study, we use a single camera sensor and historical weather data to estimate snow coverage on the road. Camera data was collected over 6 miles of arterial roadways in Kalamazoo, MI.
Technical Paper

Burner Development for Light-Off Speed-Up of Aftertreatment Systems in Gasoline SI engines

2022-06-14
2022-37-0033
Emission legislation for passenger cars is requiring a drastic reduction of exhaust pollutants from internal combustion engines (ICE). In this framework, achieving a quick heating-up of the catalyst is of paramount importance to cut down the cold start emissions and meet future regulation requirements. This paper describes the development and the basic characteristics of a novel burner for gasoline engines exhaust systems designed for being activated immediately at engine cold start. The burner is comprised of a fuel injector, an air system, and an ignition device. The design of the combustion chamber is first presented, with a description of the air-fuel interactions and mixture formation processes. Swirl is used along with a flame-holder concept to anchor the flame at the mixer exit. Spray-swirl and spray-walls interaction are also discussed. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyses have been used to investigate these aspects.
Technical Paper

Medium- and Heavy-Duty Value of Technology Improvement

2022-03-29
2022-01-0529
Improvements in vehicle technology impact the purchase price of a vehicle and its operating cost. In this study, the monetary benefit of a technology improvement includes the potential reduction in vehicle price from using cheaper or smaller components, as well as the discounted value of the fuel cost savings. As technology progresses over time, the value and benefit of improving technology varies as well. In this study, the value of improving a few selected technologies (battery energy density, electric drive efficiency, tire rolling resistance, aerodynamics, light weighting) is studied and the value of the associated cost saving is quantified. The change in saving as a function of time, powertrain selection and vehicle type is also quantified. For example, a 10% reduction in aerodynamic losses is worth $24,222 today but only $8,810 in 2030 in an electric long haul truck. The decrease in value is primarily due to expected battery cost reduction over time.
Journal Article

A Cloud-Based Simulation and Testing Framework for Large-Scale EV Charging Energy Management and Charging Control

2022-03-29
2022-01-0169
The emerging need of building an efficient Electric Vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure requires the investigation of all aspects of Vehicle-Grid Integration (VGI), including the impact of EV charging on the grid, optimal EV charging control at scale, and communication interoperability. This paper presents a cloud-based simulation and testing platform for the development and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing of VGI technologies. Although the HIL testing of a single charging station has been widely performed, the HIL testing of spatially distributed EV charging stations and communication interoperability is limited. To fill this gap, the presented platform is developed that consists of multiple subsystems: a real-time power system simulator (OPAL-RT), ISO 15118 EV Charge Scheduler System (EVCSS), and a Smart Energy Plaza (SEP) with various types of charging stations, solar panels, and energy storage systems.
Technical Paper

Numerical Evaluation of Spark Assisted Cold Idle Operation in a Heavy-Duty Gasoline Compression Ignition Engine

2021-04-06
2021-01-0410
Gasoline compression ignition (GCI) has been shown to offer benefits in the NOx-soot tradeoff over conventional diesel combustion while still achieving high fuel efficiency. However, due to gasoline’s low reactivity, it is challenging for GCI to attain robust ignition and stable combustion under cold operating conditions. Building on previous work to evaluate glow plug-assisted GCI combustion at cold idle, this work evaluates the use of a spark plug to assist combustion. The closed-cycle 3-D CFD model was validated against GCI test results at a compression ratio of 17.3 during extended cold idle operation under laboratory-controlled conditions. A market representative, ethanol-free, gasoline (RON92, E0) was used in both the experiment and the numerical analysis. Spark-assisted simulations were performed by incorporating an ignition model with the spark energy required for stable combustion at cold start.
Technical Paper

Microsimulation-Based Evaluation of an Eco-Approach Strategy for Automated Vehicles Using Vehicle-in-the-Loop

2021-04-06
2021-01-0112
Connected and automated technologies poised to change the way vehicles operate are starting to enter the mainstream market. Methods to accurately evaluate these technologies, in particular for their impact on safety and energy, are complex due to the influence of static and environmental factors, such as road environment and traffic scenarios. Therefore, it is important to develop modeling and testing frameworks that can support the development of complex vehicle functionalities in a realistic environment. Microscopic traffic simulations have been increasingly used to assess the performance of connected and automated vehicle technologies in traffic networks. In this paper, we propose and apply an evaluation method based on a combination of microscopic traffic simulation (AIMSUN) and a chassis dynamometer-based vehicle-in-the-loop environment, developed at Argonne National Laboratory.
Technical Paper

Opportunities for Medium and Heavy Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy Improvements through Hybridization

2021-04-06
2021-01-0717
The objective of this study was to evaluate the fuel saving potential of various hybrid powertrain architectures for medium and heavy duty vehicles. The relative benefit of each powertrain was analyzed, and the observed fuel savings was explained in terms of operational efficiency gains, regenerative braking benefits from powertrain electrification and differences in vehicle curb weight. Vehicles designed for various purposes, namely urban delivery, utility, transit, refuse, drayage, regional and long haul were included in this work. Fuel consumption was measured in regulatory cycles and various real world representative cycles. A diesel-powered conventional powertrain variant was first developed for each case, based on vehicle technical specifications for each type of truck. Autonomie, a simulation tool developed by Argonne National Laboratory, was used for carrying out the vehicle modeling, sizing and fuel economy evaluation.
Technical Paper

Engine Knock Evaluation Using a Machine Learning Approach

2020-09-27
2020-24-0005
Artificial Intelligence is becoming very important and useful in several scientific fields. Machine learning methods, such as neural networks and decision trees, are often proposed in applications for internal combustion engines as virtual sensors, faults diagnosis systems and engine performance optimization. The high pressure of the intake air coupled with the demand of lean conditions, in order to reduce emissions, have often close relationship with the knock events. Fuels autoignition characteristics and flame front speed have a significant impact on knock phenomenon, producing high internal cylinder pressures and engine faults. The limitations in using pressure sensors in the racing field and the challenge to reduce the costs of commercial cars, push the replacement of a hardware redundancy with a software redundancy.
Technical Paper

Numerical Analysis of Fuel Impacts on Advanced Compression Ignition Strategies for Multi-Mode Internal Combustion Engines

2020-04-14
2020-01-1124
Multi-mode combustion strategies may provide a promising pathway to improve thermal efficiency in light-duty spark ignition (SI) engines by enabling switchable combustion modes, wherein an engine may operate under advanced compression ignition (ACI) at low load and spark-assisted ignition at high load. The extension from the SI mode to the ACI mode requires accurate control of intake charge conditions, e.g., pressure, temperature and equivalence ratio, in order to achieve stable combustion phasing and rapid mode-switches. This study presents results from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis to gain insights into mixture charge formation and combustion dynamics pertaining to auto-ignition processes. The computational study begins with a discussion of thermal wall boundary condition that significantly impacts the combustion phasing.
Technical Paper

An Analytical Energy-budget Model for Diesel Droplet Impingement on an Inclined Solid Wall

2020-04-14
2020-01-1158
The study of spray-wall interaction is of great importance to understand the dynamics that occur during fuel impingement onto the chamber wall or piston surfaces in internal combustion engines. It is found that the maximum spreading length of an impinged droplet can provide a quantitative estimation of heat transfer and energy transformation for spray-wall interaction. Furthermore, it influences the air-fuel mixing and hydrocarbon and particle emissions at combusting conditions. In this paper, an analytical model of a single diesel droplet impinging on the wall with different inclined angles (α) is developed in terms of βm (dimensionless maximum spreading length, the ratio of maximum spreading length to initial droplet diameter) to understand the detailed impinging dynamic process.
Technical Paper

Comparative Analysis between a Barrier Discharge Igniter and a Streamer-Type Radio-Frequency Corona Igniter in an Optically Accessible Engine in Lean Operating Conditions

2020-04-14
2020-01-0276
Among plasma-assisted ignition technologies, the Radio-Frequency (RF) corona family represents an interesting solution for the ability to extend the engine operating range. These systems generate transient, non-thermal plasma, which is able to enhance the combustion onset by means of thermal, kinetic and transport effects. Streamer-type RF corona discharge, at about 1 MHz, ignites the air-fuel mixture in multiple filaments, resulting in many different flame kernels. The main issue of this system is that at high electrode voltage and low combustion chamber pressure a transition between streamer and arc easily occurs: in this case transient plasma benefits are lost. A barrier discharge igniter (BDI), supplied with the same RF energy input, instead, is more breakdown-resistant, so that voltage can be raised to higher levels. In this work, a streamer-type RF corona igniter and a BDI were tested in a single-cylinder optical engine fueled with gasoline.
Technical Paper

Exploration of Cavitation-Suppressing Orifice Designs for a Heavy-Duty Diesel Injector Operating with Straight-Run Gasoline

2019-09-09
2019-24-0126
The occurrence of cavitation inside injectors is generally undesirable since it can cause material erosion and result in deviations from the expected injector performance. Previous numerical work employing an injector geometry measured with x-ray diagnostics and operating with a high-volatility straight-run gasoline (SRG) has shown that: (1) most of the cavitation is generally observed at low needle lifts, (2) needle motion is responsible for asymmetric structures in the internal flow as well as large pressure and velocity gradients that trigger phase transition at the orifice inlets, and (3) cavitation affects the injector discharge coefficient and distribution of injected fuel. To explore the potential for material damage within the injector orifices due to cavitation cloud collapse, the cavitation-induced erosion risk assessment (CIERA) tool has been applied for the first time to the realistic geometry of a heavy-duty injector using the CONVERGE software.
Technical Paper

CFD Investigation of the Effects of Gas’ Methane Number on the Performance of a Heavy-Duty Natural-Gas Spark-Ignition Engine

2019-09-09
2019-24-0008
Natural gas (NG) is an alternative fuel for spark-ignition engines. In addition to its cleaner combustion, recent breakthroughs in drilling technologies increased its availability and lowered its cost. NG consists of mostly methane, but it also contains heavier hydrocarbons and inert diluents, the levels of which vary substantially with geographical source, time of the year and treatments applied during production or transportation. To investigate the effects of NG composition on engine performance and emissions, a 3D CFD model of a heavy-duty diesel engine retrofitted to NG spark ignition simulated lean-combustion engine operation at low speed and medium load conditions. The work investigated three NG blends with similar lower heating value (i.e., similar energy density) but different Methane Number (MN). The results indicated that a lower MN increased flame propagation speed and thus increased in-cylinder pressure and indicated mean effective pressure.
Technical Paper

FD&E Total Life T-Sample Residual Stress Analytical Predictions and Measured Results

2019-04-02
2019-01-0528
The Society of Automotive Engineers Fatigue Design & Evaluation Committee [SAE FD&E] is actively working on a total life project for weldments, in which the welding residual stress is a key contributor to an accurate assessment of fatigue life. Physics-based welding process simulation and various types of residual stress measurements were pursued to provide a representation of the residual stress field at the failure location in the fatigue samples. A well-controlled and documented robotic welding process was used for all sample fabrications to provide accurate inputs for the welding simulations. One destructive (contour method) residual stress measurement and several non-destructive residual stress measurements-surface X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray diffraction (EDXRD), and neutron diffraction (ND)-were performed on the same or similarly welded samples.
Technical Paper

Analysis and Model Validation of the Toyota Prius Prime

2019-04-02
2019-01-0369
The Toyota Prius Prime is a new generation of Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, the electric drive range of which is 25 miles. This version is improved from the previous version by the addition of a one-way clutch between the engine and the planetary gear-set, which enables the generator to add electric propulsive force. The vehicle was analyzed, developed and validated based on test data from Argonne National Laboratory’s Advanced Powertrain Research Facility, where chassis dynamometer set temperature can be controlled in a thermal chamber. First, we analyzed and developed components such as engine, battery, motors, wheels and chassis, including thermal aspects based on test data. By developing models considering thermal aspects, it is possible to simulate the vehicle driving not only in normal temperatures but also in hot, cold, or warmed-up conditions.
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