Search Results

The work examined the practicality of converting a modern production 6 cylinder 7.7 litre heavy-duty diesel engine for flex dual-fuel operation with ammonia as the main fuel. A small amount of diesel fuel (pilot) was used as an ignition source. Ammonia was injected into the intake ports during the intake stroke, while the original direct fuel injection equipment was retained and used for pilot diesel injection. A bespoke engine control unit was used to control the injection of both fuels and all other engine parameters. The aim was to provide a cost-effective retrofitting technology for existing heavy-duty engines, to enable eco-friendly operation with minimal carbon emissions. The tests were carried out at a baseline speed of 600 rpm for the load range of the engine (10-90%), with minimum pilot diesel quantity and as high as 90% substitution ratio of ammonia for diesel fuel.

Ammonia (NH3) is emerging as a potential fuel for longer range decarbonised heavy transport, predominantly due to favourable characteristics as an effective hydrogen carrier. This is despite generally unfavourable combustion and toxicity attributes, restricting end use to applications where robust health and safety protocols can always be upheld. In the currently reported work, a spark ignited thermodynamic single cylinder research engine was upgraded to include gaseous ammonia and hydrogen port injection fueling, with the aim of understanding maximum viable ammonia substitution ratios across the speed-load operating map. The work was conducted under stoichiometric conditions with the spark timing re-optimised for maximum brake torque at all stable logged sites. The experiments included industry standard measurements of combustion, performance and engine-out emissions.

Electric machines in aerospace applications are subjected to extremely high operating temperatures. This increases coercivity or decreases saturation flux density of the electrical steel resulting in increased core loss. The need for high power density and increased operating speed favours the use of thin gauge Silicon Steel (Si-Fe) and Cobalt Iron (Co-Fe) laminations for aerospace applications. Therefore, the variation in iron loss is studied for three grades of Si-Fe laminations by subjecting them to controlled ageing in laboratory. The analysis is also provided over a range of flux density and frequency to generalize the phenomenon over the operating domain. The results of ageing the laminations are in turn used to predict the degradation in performance of a 1.15 MW, 16-pole 48-slot propulsion machine for aerospace application. The degradation is estimated in terms of variation in iron loss.

The increased severity and prevalence of insoluble deposits formed on fuel injectors in gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines precipitates negative environmental, economic and healthcare impacts. A necessary step in mitigating deposits is to unravel the molecular compositions of these complex layered materials. But very little molecular data has been acquired. Mass spectrometry shows promise but most techniques require the use of solvents, making them unsuited for analyzing insoluble deposits. Here, we apply the high mass-resolving power and in-situ analysis capabilities of 3D OrbitrapTM secondary ion mass spectrometry (3D OrbiSIMS) to characterize deposits formed on the external tip and internal needle from a GDI injector. This is the first application of the technique to study internal GDI deposits. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are present up to higher maximum masses in the external deposit.

Engine research has increasingly focused on emission of sub 23 nm particulates in recent years. Likewise, current legislative efforts are being made for particulate number (PN) emission limits to include this previously omitted size range. In Europe, PN measurement equipment and procedures for regulatory purposes are defined by the particle measurement programme (PMP). Latest regulation drafts for sub 23 nm measurements specify counting efficiencies with a 65% cut-off size at 10 nm (d65) and a minimum of 90% above 15 nm (d90). Even though alternative instruments, such as differential mobility spectrometers (DMS), are widely used in laboratory environments, the interpretation of their sub 23 nm measurements has not yet been widely discussed. For this study, particulate emissions of a 1.0L gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine have been measured with a DMS system for low to medium speeds with two load steps.

Over the last decade, there has been an impetus in the automobile industry to develop new diesel injector systems, driven by a desire to reduce fuel consumption and proscribed by the requirement to fulfil legislation emissions. The modern common-rail diesel injector system has been developed by the industry to fulfil these aspirations, designed with ever-higher tolerances and pressures, which have led to concomitant increases in fuel temperatures after compression with reports of fuel temperatures of ~150°C at 1500-2500 bar. This engineering solution in combination with the introduction of Ultra Low Sulphur diesel fuel (ULSD) has been found to be highly sensitive to deposit formation both external injector deposits (EDID) and internal (IDID). The deposits have caused concerns for customers with poor spray patterns misfiring injector malfunction and failure, producing increased fuel consumption and emissions.

The impact of internal diesel injector deposits (IDIDs) on engine performance, efficiency and emissions remains a major concern in the automotive industry. This has been compounded in recent years by fuel injection equipment developments and changes to diesel fuel towards ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and biodiesel as well as the introduction of new fuels such as hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). Prevention and mitigation of such deposit formation requires an understanding of the formation process, which demands a chemical explanation. The chemistry of these deposits therefore remains a key research interest to the industry using the latest analytical methodologies to inform and build further on previous investigations.

This paper presents an evaluation of two different Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I) applications, namely Red Light Violation Warning (RLVW) and Green Light Optimized Speed Advisory (GLOSA). The evaluation method is to first develop and use Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) simulator testing, followed by extension of the HIL testing to road testing using an experimental connected vehicle. The HIL simulator used in the testing is a state-of-the-art simulator that consists of the same hardware like the road side unit and traffic cabinet as is used in real intersections and allows testing of numerous different traffic and intersection geometry and timing scenarios realistically. First, the RLVW V2I algorithm is tested in the HIL simulator and then implemented in an On-Board-Unit (OBU) in our experimental vehicle and tested at real world intersections.

Through improving the 48V hybrid vehicle archetype, governmental emission targets could be more easily met without incurring the high costs associated with increasing levels of electrification. The braking energy recovery function of hybrid vehicles is recognised as an effective solution to reduce emissions and fuel consumption in the short to medium term. The aim of this study was to evaluate methods to maximise the braking energy recovery capability of the 48V hybrid electric vehicle over pre-selected drive cycles using appropriately sized electrified components. The strategy adopted was based upon optimising the battery chemistry type via specific power capability, so that overall brake power is equal to the maximum battery charging power in a typical medium-sized passenger car under typical driving. This will maximise the regenerative braking energy whilst providing a larger torque assistance for a lower battery capacity.

There has been a great effort expended in identifying causes of Hydro-Carbon (HC) and Particulate Matter (PM) emissions resulting from poor spray preparation, leading to characterization of fueling behavior near nozzle. It has been observed that large droplet size is a primary contributor to HC and PM emission. Imaging technologies have been developed to understand the break-up and consistency of fuel spray. However, there appears to be a lack of studies of the spray characteristics at the End of Injection (EOI), near nozzle, in particular, the effect that tip deposits have on the EOI characteristics. Injector tip deposits are of interest due to their effect on not only fuel spray characteristics, but also their unintended effect on engine out emissions. Using a novel imaging technique to extract near nozzle fuel characteristics at EOI, the impact of tip deposits on Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) fuel injectors at the EOI is being examined in this work.

Reconfigurable tooling frames consisting of steel box sections and bolted friction clamps offer an opportunity to replace traditional expensive welded steel tooling. This well publicized reconfigurable reusable jig tooling has been investigated for use in the assembly of a prototype compound helicopter wing. Due to the aircraft configuration, the wing design is pinned at both ends and therefore requires a higher degree of end to end accuracy, over the 4m length, than conventional wings. During the investigation some fundamental issues are approached, including: Potential cost savings and variables which effect the business case. Achievable Jig accuracy. Potential sources of instability that may affect accuracy over time. Repeatability of measurements with various features and methods. Typical jig stability over 24hrs including effects of small temperature fluctuations. Deflections that occur due to loading.

The Rapid And Cost Effective Rotorcraft (RACER) is being developed by Airbus Helicopters (AH) to demonstrate a new Vertical Take-Off and Landing configuration to fill the mobility gap between conventional helicopters and aeroplanes. RACER is a compound rotorcraft featuring wings and multiple rotors. The wing arrangement suggested by AH is defined as a staggered bi-plane joined configuration with an upper and a lower straight wing, either side of the fuselage, connected at their outboard extent to form a triangular structure. The ASTRAL consortium, consisting of the University of Nottingham and GE Aviation Systems, are responsible for the design, manufacture, assembly and testing of the wings. Producing an optimised strategy to assemble a joined-wing configuration for a passenger carrying rotorcraft is challenging and novel. The objective of this work concerns all aspects of assembling the joined-wing structure.

Formation of soot is a known phenomenon for diesel engines, however, only recently emerged for gasoline engines with the introduction of direct injection systems. Soot-in-oil samples from a three-cylinder turbocharged gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine have been analysed. The samples were collected from the oil sump after periods of use in predominantly urban driving conditions with start-stop mode activated. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed to measure the soot content in the drained oils. Soot deposition rates were similar to previously reported rates for diesel engines, i.e. 1 wt% per 15,000 km, thus indicating a similar importance. Morphology was assessed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Images showed fractal agglomerates comprising multiple primary particles with characteristic core-shell nanostructure. Furthermore, large amorphous structures were observed. Primary particle sizes ranged from 12 to 55 nm, with a mean diameter of 30 nm and mode at 31 nm.

Electrified powertrains respond to driver demand for vehicle acceleration by producing power through either the electric drive system or an on-board combustion engine or both. In Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles (PHEVs), the powertrain provides the purest form of transportation when responding to driver demand through the electric drive system. We develop a method to size the electric drive system in PHEVs to provide zero emission driving in densely populated urban regions. We use real world data from Europe and calculate instantaneous wheel power during trips. Ray tracing is used to identify the regions where trips occur and the population density of these regions is obtained from an open source dataset published by Eurostat. Regions are categorized by their population density into urban and extra-urban regions. Real world data from these regions is analyzed to determine the wheel power required in urban and extra-urban settings.

During development of complex automotive technologies, a significant engineering effort is often dedicated to ensuring the safe performance of these systems. An important aspect to consider when assessing the viability of different safety designs or strategies is the time period from the occurrence of a fault to the violation of a Safety Goal (SG). This time period is commonly referred to as the Fault Tolerant Time Interval (FTTI). In Automotive Safety, ISO 26262 [1] calls for the identification and appropriate partitioning of the FTTI, however very little guidance is provided on how to do this. This paper presents a process, covering the entire safety development lifecycle, for the identification of timing constraints and the development of associated requirements necessary to prevent Safety Goal violations.

Evolvable Assembly Systems is a five year UK research council funded project into flexible and reconfigurable manufacturing systems. The principal goal of the research programme has been to define and validate the vision and support architecture, theoretical models, methods and algorithms for Evolvable Assembly Systems as a new platform for open, adaptable, context-aware and cost effective production. The project is now coming to a close; the concepts developed during the project have been implemented on a variety of demonstrators across a number of manufacturing domains including automotive and aerospace assembly. This paper will show the progression of demonstrators and applications as they increase in complexity, specifically focussing on the Future Automated Aerospace Assembly Phase 1 technology demonstrator (FA3D).

The solid state power controller (SSPC) is one of the most important power electronic components of the aircraft electrical power distribution (EPS) systems. This paper presents an architecture of the DC SSPC and provides the mitigation techniques for transient voltage overshoot during its turn-off. The high source side inductance carries breaking current (9xnominal current) just before turnoff and induces large voltage transient across the semiconductor devices. Therefore, the stored inductive energy needs to be dissipated in order to prevent semiconductor switches from over-voltage/thermal breakdown. Three different transient voltage suppression (TVS) devices to reduce voltage stress across switches are included in the paper for detail study. The comprehensive comparison of the TVS devices is presented. In addition, the thermal impact of the TVS devices on the semiconductor switches is also analyzed.

The falling cost of lithium ion batteries combined with an ongoing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is driving the proliferation of affordable long-range battery electric vehicles (BEVs). However, an inherent challenge with longer-range BEVs is the increased time required to fully charge the battery using standard 120/240 V AC power outlets. One approach to address this issue involves moving to higher power onboard AC chargers; however, household and utility wiring may not allow for the full capability of these higher power chargers. This study explores the typical time available for vehicle charging during an overnight stop based on real-world customer “MyFord Mobile” (MFM) data collected from Ford electrified vehicles. Through this approach, the available overnight time for recharging and required energy to be added to the battery are evaluated under the influence of typical daily driving distances, extreme ambient temperatures, and value charging time windows.

High power density for aerospace motor drives is a key factor in the successful realization of the More Electric Aircraft (MEA) concept. An integrated system design approach offers optimization opportunities, which could lead to further improvements in power density. However this requires multi-disciplinary modelling and the handling of a complex optimization problem that is discrete and nonlinear in nature. This paper proposes a multi-level approach towards applying random heuristic optimization to the integrated motor design problem. Integrated optimizations are performed independently and sequentially at different levels assigned according to the 4-level modelling paradigm for electric systems. This paper also details a motor drive sizing procedure, which poses as the optimization problem to solve here. Finally, results comparing the proposed multi-level approach with a more traditional single-level approach is presented for a 2.5 kW actuator motor drive design.

This paper presents novel development of a reconfigurable assembly cell which assembles multiple aerostructure products. Most aerostructure assembly systems are designed to produce one variant only. For multiple variants, each assembly typically has a dedicated assembly cell, despite most assemblies requiring a process of drilling and fastening to similar tolerances. Assembly systems that produce more than one variant do exist but have long changeover or involve extensive retrofitting. Quick assembly of multiple products using one assembly system offers significant cost savings from reductions in capital expenditure and lead time. Recent trends advocate Reconfigurable Assembly Systems (RAS) as a solution; designed to have exactly the functionality necessary to produce a group of similar components. A state-of-the-art review finds significant benefits in deploying RAS for a group of aerostructures variants.