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Momentum conservation is a principle rule that affects the behaviour of vapour jet and liquid spray penetration. The air entrainment and mixture formation processes are dominated by the momentum transferred from the fuel to the ambient gas. Thus, it is a significant factor in the development of spray and jet penetration. This mixture formation process is well described for small-scale passenger car injectors; however, it has to be investigated in more detail for large-scale injector nozzles. The current work provides qualitative and quantitative results of spray and jet parameters in a constant volume combustion chamber (CVC). Two optical methods have been utilized to evaluate spray and jet details: Schlieren photography as a method to visualize the jet penetration and cone angle as well as Mie scattering for the phase change evaluation and the determination of liquid spray parameters.

In DISI engines spray distribution and atomization directly influence mixture formation, the quality of combustion and the resulting emissions. Constant Volume Chambers (CVC) are commonly used to characterize sprays of gasoline injectors. The CVCs provide good optical access but the flow condition of the engine cannot be reproduced. Optically accessible engines in contrast deliver realistic flow conditions but have restricted optical access. In former investigations we compared the spray propagation of different injectors in constant volume chambers and in optical accessible engines. These results showed a clear difference of the spray propagation in the CVC and the engine, especially at high charge motion conditions in the engine. To find an appropriate way to investigate the impact of different charge motion a flow channel was built with adjustable crossflow velocities from 5-50 m/s. The spray propagation during the injection process was measured with high-speed shadowgraphy.

The fuel spray behavior in the near nozzle region of a gasoline injector is challenging to predict due to existing pressure gradients and turbulences of the internal flow and in-nozzle cavitation. Therefore, statistical parameters for spray characterization through experiments must be considered. The characterization of spray velocity fields in the near-nozzle region is of particular importance as the velocity information is crucial in understanding the hydrodynamic processes which take place further downstream during fuel atomization and mixture formation. This knowledge is needed in order to optimize injector nozzles for future requirements. In this study, the results of three experimental approaches for determination of spray velocity in the near-nozzle region are presented. Two different injector nozzle types were measured through high-speed shadowgraph imaging, Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) and X-ray imaging.

Three jet fuel surrogates were compared against their target fuels in a compression ignited optical engine under a range of start-of-injection temperatures and densities. The jet fuel surrogates are representative of petroleum-based Jet-A POSF-4658, natural gas-derived S-8 POSF-4734 and coal-derived Sasol IPK POSF-5642, and were prepared from a palette of n-dodecane, n-decane, decalin, toluene, iso-octane and iso-cetane. Optical chemiluminescence and liquid penetration length measurements as well as cylinder pressure-based combustion analyses were applied to examine fuel behavior during the injection and combustion process. HCHO* emissions obtained from broadband UV imaging were used as a marker for low temperature reactivity, while 309 nm narrow band filtered imaging was applied to identify the occurrence of OH*, autoignition and high temperature reactivity.

A previous study by the authors has shown an efficiency benefit of up to Δηi = 10 % for stratified operation of a high pressure natural gas direct injection (DI) spark ignition (SI) engine compared to the homogeneous stoichiometric operation with port fuel injection (PFI). While best efficiencies appeared at extremely lean operation at λ = 3.2, minimum HC emissions were found at λ = 2. The increasing HC emissions and narrow ignition time frames in the extremely lean stratified operation have given the need for a detailed analysis. To further investigate the mixture formation and flame propagation und these conditions, an optically accessible single-cylinder engine was used. The mixture formation and the flame luminosity have been investigated in two perpendicular planes inside the combustion chamber.

In a study using a single-cylinder engine a significant potential in fuel efficiency and emission reduction was found for stratified operation of a high pressure natural gas direct injection (DI) spark ignition (SI) engine. The control of the mixture formation process appeared to be critical to ensure stable inflammation of the mixture. Therefore, optical investigations of the mixture formation were performed on a geometric equivalent, optically accessible single-cylinder engine to investigate the correlation of mixture formation and inflammability. The two optical measurement techniques infrared (IR) absorption and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) were employed. Mid-wavelength IR absorption appeared to be qualified for a global visualization of natural gas injection; LIF allows to quantify the equivalence ratio inside a detection level. While LIF measurements require complex equipment, the IR setup consists merely of a black body heater and a mid-wavelength sensitive IR camera.

Modern concepts of downsized DI gasoline engines set up high requirements on the injection system to meet the emission targets. The fundamental knowledge and understanding of spray propagation physics are essential for the development of nozzles and injection strategies, due to reduced displacements in combination with the continuing trend of elevated fuel pressures. A detailed analysis of micro- and macroscopic spray parameters was carried out using a multihole solenoid driven DI injector. The measurements were performed in a continuously scavenged pressure chamber with full optical access. Fuel pressure up to 38MPa and backpressures in a range from 0.03 - 0.2 MPa were varied. Optical investigations were done by Shadowgraphy imaging and Phase Doppler Anemometry. The combination of micro- and macroscopic spray results are used to discuss the propagation behaviour of gasoline spray.

Hydrogen engines represent an economic alternative to fuel cells for future energy scenarios based on Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHC). This scenario incorporates LOHCs to store hydrogen from fluctuating renewable energy sources and deliver it to decentralised power generation units. Hydrogen engines were deeply investigated in the past decade and the results show efficiencies similar to CI engines. Due to the low energy density and tendency towards pre-ignition of hydrogen, the key element to reach high efficiency and a safe operation is a direct injection of the hydrogen. Because high injection pressure is not available in practical applications or would reduce the possible driving range, a low injection pressure is favourable. The low density leads to large flow cross sections inside the injector, similar to CNG direct injectors. So far, some research CNG and hydrogen low pressure direct injectors were investigated, but no commercial injector is available.

Modern direct injection spark ignition (DISI) engine concepts have the drawback of higher particulate matter emission as compared to port fuel injection concepts. Especially, when driven with biofuels, the operation of DISI engines requires a deeper insight into particulate formation processes. In this study a modern optical accessible DISI engine is used. Pure isooctane, ethanol, E20 (20vol% of ethanol in isooctane) and E85 were investigated as fuels. Simultaneous OH*-chemiluminescence and soot radiation imaging was conducted by a high-speed camera system in order to separate premixed combustion with the sooting combustion. Furthermore, a laser-induced incandescence (LII) sensor was used to measure exhaust elementary carbon mass concentration. Systematically, operation points were chosen, which correspondent to the main sooting mechanisms, poolfire, mixture inhomogeneities and global low air-fuel ratio. Furthermore, they were compared to a homogenous charge combustion strategy.

Cylinder deactivation is a technology seeing increased automotive deployment in light of more demanding fuel economy and emissions requirements. Examples of current production systems include GM's Active Fuel Management and Chrysler's Multi-Displacement System, both of which provide one fixed level of deactivation. Dynamic Skip Fire (DSF), in which the number of fired cylinders is continuously varied to match the torque demand, offers significantly increased fuel savings over a wider operating range than the current production systems. One of the biggest challenges in implementing cylinder deactivation is developing strategies to provide acceptable Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH); this paper discusses those challenges and the methodologies developed. This work covers theoretical root causes; proposed metrics to quantify the NVH level; algorithmic and physical mitigation methods; and both subjective and objective evaluation results.

Development of in-cylinder spray targeting, plume penetration and atomization of the gasoline direct-injection (GDi) multi-hole injector is a critical component of combustion developments, especially in the context of the engine downsizing and turbo-charging trend that has been adopted in order to achieve the European target CO2, US CAFE, and concomitant stringent emissions standards. Significant R&D efforts are directed towards the optimization of injector nozzle designs in order to improve spray characteristics. Development of accurate predictive models is desired to understand the impact of nozzle design parameters as well as the underlying physical fluid dynamic mechanisms resulting in the injector spray characteristics. This publication reports Large Eddy Simulation (LES) analyses of GDi single-hole skew-angled nozzles, with β=30° skew (bend) angle and different nozzle geometries.

Differences in thermo-physical parameters of fuels have high impact on the ignition, combustion and emission. Pure rapeseed FAME and diesel fuel with a cetane number of 60 have been compared to reference fuel. In an optical accessible vessel the fuels have been injected in order to investigate the spray, the ignition and soot formation. The high cetane number fuel showed similar behavior in spray phase to the reference fuel but the FAME fuel is more present at all operating points due to low volatile fuel components. The ignition and combustion process was investigated via chemical luminescence (CL) and laser induced incandescence (LII). In engine investigations a reduced ignition delay is detected in case of high cetane-number. The more sensitive optical techniques show differences in the combustion process. The ignition behavior of the reference fuel and the increased cetane number fuel were similar until the cetane increaser of the high cetane fuel came into effect.

Understanding the causal loop from injection to combustion in modern direct injection engines is essential to improve combustion and reduce emissions. In this work, the section from injection to fuel-evaporation in this causal loop was investigated using different optical measurement techniques, with a focus on drop size measurements using Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA). One spray jet of a modern DISI multi-hole injector was investigated using gasoline RON 95 fuel and two single component alkane fuels (n-hexane / n-decane). In a first step the macroscopic spray formation and propagation of this spray jet were studied using a 2D-Mie-scattering technique in an optical injection chamber at homogenous charge DISI conditions. Furthermore, the droplet size distribution and mean diameter were determined spatially and temporally resolved for an ambient pressure of 0.3MPa and different ambient temperature (323K / 423K / 523K) conditions in the optical chamber using Phase Doppler Anemometry.

Cylinder deactivation is a fuel consumption reduction technology for throttled internal combustion engines and other engines with thermal efficiency loss at part cylinder load. Recent production implementations, deactivating fixed sets of cylinders under part-load operating conditions, have had limited “fly zones” due to issues with drivability and noise, vibration and harshness (NVH). Dynamic skip firing, which in its ultimate form incorporates anytime, any-cylinder deactivation, continuously varies the number of firing cylinders, along with cylinder load, obtaining flexible control of acoustic and vibrational excitations from the engine, and allowing an expanded operational envelope with fewer drive ability/NVH issues. This paper outlines design considerations of dynamic skip fire operational strategies, discusses implementation of the system on a vehicle, and presents benefits to fuel economy and NVH.

This paper describes a computer simulation of Diesel spray formation and the locations of self-ignition nuclei. The spray is divided into small elementary volumes in which the amounts of fuel and fuel vapours, air, mean, maximum and minimum fuel droplet diameter are calculated, as well as their number. The total air-fuel and air-fuel vapour ratios are calculated for each elementary volume. The paper introduces a new criterion for determining self-ignition nuclei, based on assumptions that the strongest self-ignition probability lies in those elementary volumes containing the stoichiometric air ratio, where the fuel is evaporated or the fuel droplet diameter is equal to or lower than 0.0065 mm. The most efficient combustion in regard to consumption and emission will be in those elementary volumes containing stoichiometric air ratio, and fuel droplets with the lowest mean diameters. Measurements of injection and combustion were carried out in a transparent research engine.

The influence of fuel composition on sprays was studied in an injection chamber at DISI conditions with late injection timing. Fuels with high, mid and low volatility (n-hexane, n-heptane, n-decane) and a 3-component mixture with similar fuel properties like gasoline were investigated. The injection conditions were chosen to model suppressed or rapid evaporation. Mie scattering imaging and phase Doppler anemometry were used to investigate the liquid spray structure. A spray model was set up applying the CFD-Code OpenFOAM. The atomization was found to be different for n-decane that showed a smaller average droplet size due to viscosity dependence of injected mass. And for evaporating conditions, a stratification of the vapor components in the 3-component fuel spray was observed.

Multi-hole DI injectors are being adopted in the advanced downsized DISI ICE powertrain in the automotive industry worldwide because of their robustness and cost-performance. Although their injector design and spray resembles those of DI diesel injectors, there are many basic but distinct differences due to different injection pressure and fuel properties, the sac design, lower L/D aspect ratios in the nozzle hole, closer spray-to-spray angle and hense interactions. This paper used Phase-Contrast X ray techniques to visualize the spray near a 3-hole DI gasoline research model injector exit and compared to the visible light visualization and the internal flow predictions using with multi-dimensional multi-phase CFD simulations. The results show that strong interactions of the vortex strings, cavitation, and turbulence in and near the nozzles make the multi-phase turbulent flow very complicated and dominate the near nozzle breakup mechanisms quite unlike those of diesel injections.

Advanced valvetrain coupled with Direct Injection (DI) provides an opportunity to simultaneous reduction of fuel consumption and emissions. Because of their robustness and cost performance, multi-hole injectors are being adopted as gasoline DI fuel injectors. Ethanol and ethanol-gasoline blends synergistically improve the performance of a turbo-charged DI gasoline engine, especially in down-sized, down-sped and variable-valvetrain engine architecture. This paper presents Mie-scattering spray imaging results taken with an Optical Accessible Engine (OAE). OAE offers dynamic and realistic in-cylinder charge motion with direct imaging capability, and the interaction with the ethanol spray with the intake air is studied. Two types of cams which are designed for Early Intake Valve Close (EIVC) and Later Intake Valve Close (LIVC) are tested, and the effect of variable valve profile and deactivation of one of the intake valves are discussed.

Flexible and multiple injections are an important strategy to fulfill today's exhaust emission regulations. To optimize injection processes with an increasing number of adjustable parameters knowledge about the basic mechanisms of spray breakup, propagation, evaporation and ignition is mandatory. In the present investigation the focus is set on spray formation and ignition. In order to simulate current diesel-engine conditions measurements were carried out in a high-temperature (1000 K) and high-pressure (10 MPa) vessel with optical accesses. A piezo servo-hydraulic injector pressurized up to 200 MPa was used to compare four single injection durations and four multi-injection patterns in the ignition phase. All measurements were performed with CEC RF-03-06, a legislative reference fuel. For the spray measurements, a program of 16 to 18 different operating points was chosen to simulate engine conditions from cold start to full load.

Because of their robustness and cost performance, multi-hole gasoline injectors are being adopted as the direct injection (DI) fuel injector of choice as vehicle manufacturers look for ways to reduce fuel consumption without sacrificing power and emission performance. To realize the full benefits of direct injection, the resulting spray needs to be well targeted, atomized, and appropriately mixed with charge air for the desirable fuel vapor concentration distributions in the combustion chamber. Ethanol and ethanol-gasoline blends synergistically improve the turbo-charged DI gasoline performance, especially in down-sized, down-sped and variable-valve-train engine architecture. This paper presents the spray imaging results from two multi-hole DI gasoline injectors with different design, fueled with pure ethanol (E100) or gasoline (E0), under homogeneous and stratified-charge conditions that represent typical engine operating points.