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Third generation advanced high strength steels (AHSS) have been developed combining high strength and formability, allowing for lightweighting of vehicle structural components. These AHSS components are exposed to paint baking operations ranging in time and temperature to cure the applied paint. The paint baking treatment, combined with straining induced from part forming, may lead to increased in-service component performance due to a strengthening mechanism known as bake hardening. This study aims to quantify the bake hardening behavior of select AHSS grades. Materials investigated were press hardenable steels (PHS) 1500 and 2000; transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) aided bainitic ferrite (TBF) 1000 and 1200; and dual phase (DP) 1000. The number designations of these grades refer to minimum as-received ultimate tensile strengths in MPa. Paint baking was simulated using industrially relevant times and temperatures from 15 to 60 min and 120 to 200 °C, respectively.

Until now the hole expansion ratio has been generally regarded as a relative “local formability” parameter with limited application to edge-cracking analysis and prediction. In this study a constrained statistical test data analysis methodology is introduced, where the lower-bound hole expansion ratio is the basis for three practical edge-cracking failure criteria. The Maximum Edge Stretch Criterion is directly compatible with CAE simulation. The Edge Thinning Limit Criterion and the Critical Thickness Criterion are more useful in field work and post mortem laboratory failure analysis. Two case studies are described, where hole expansion test data are used to analyze edge cracking of Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) in real-world automotive seating applications.

Edge stretching performance was assessed with the conical-punch hole expansion test for a variety of automotive sheet steels. Included were: an ultra-low carbon IF steel, a dual-phase advanced high strength steel (DP 980), an austenitic stainless steel (204), an annealed martensitic stainless steel (410 AN), and a ferritic stainless steel (429 MOD). Various hole fabrication methods were considered: conventional piercing (shearing), water-jet cutting and laser cutting. With pierced holes, no effect of shearing clearance on the hole expansion ratio (HER) was observed. The dual-phase steel and the austenitic stainless steel exhibited relatively low hole expansion performance in the pierced-hole condition (HER ≤ 50%). However, these materials demonstrated tremendous potential for improvement with alternative edge preparation methods, and both benefitted more from laser cutting than from water-jet cutting.

Quenching & Partitioning (Q&P) is receiving increased attention as a novel Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) processing route as promising tensile properties of the “third generation” have been reported. The current contribution reports hole expansion ratios (HER) of Q&P steels and compares the values with HERs obtained for “conventional” AHSS processing routes such as austempering and Quench & Tempering (Q&T). Intercritically annealed C-Mn-Al-Si-P and fully austenitized C-Mn-Si microstructures were studied. Optimum combinations of tensile strength and HER were obtained for fully austenitized C-Mn-Si Q&P samples. Higher HER values were obtained for Q&P than for Q&T steels for similar tempering/partitioning temperatures. Austempering following intercritical annealing results in higher HER than Q&P at similar tensile strength levels. In contrast, Q&P following full austenitization results in higher hole expansion than austempering even at higher strength levels.

The susceptibility of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) was evaluated on selected high strength sheet steels (DP 600, TRIP 780, TRIP 980, TWIP-Al, TWIP, and Martensitic M220) and the results were compared to data on a lower strength (300 MPa tensile strength) low carbon steel. Tensile samples were cathodically charged and then immediately tensile tested to failure to analyze the mechanical properties of the as-charged steel. The effects of hydrogen on deformation and fracture behavior were evaluated through analysis of tensile properties, necking geometry, and SEM images of fracture surfaces and metallographic samples of deformed tensile specimens. The two fully austenitic TWIP steels were resistant to hydrogen effects in the laboratory charged tensile samples.

The bending fatigue performance of high temperature (1050 °C) vacuum carburized Nb modified 8620 steel, with niobium additions of 0.02, 0.06 and 0.1 wt pct, was evaluated utilizing a modified Brugger specimen geometry. Samples were heated at two different rates (20 and 114 °C min-1) to the carburizing temperature resulting in different prior austenite grain structures that depended on the specific Nb addition and heating rate employed. At the lower heating rate, uniform fine grained prior austenite grain structures developed in the 0.06 and 0.1 Nb steels while a duplex grain structure with the presence of large (>200 μm grains) developed in the 0.02 Nb steel. At the higher heating rate the propensity for abnormal grain growth was highest in the 0.02 Nb steel and complete suppression of abnormal grain growth was achieved only with the 0.1 Nb steel.

A series of bending fatigue tests were conducted and S-N data were obtained for two groups of 4320 steel samples: (1) carburized, quenched and tempered, (2) carburized, quenched, tempered and shot peened. Shot peening improved the fatigue life and endurance limit. The S-N data exhibited large scatter, especially for carburized samples and at the high cycle life regime. Sample characterization work was performed and scatter bands were established for residual stress distributions, in addition to fracture and fatigue properties for 4320 steel. Moreover, a fatigue life analysis was performed using fracture mechanics and strain life fatigue theories. Scatter in S-N curves was established computationally by using the lower bound and upper bound in materials properties, residual stress and IGO depth in the input data. The results for fatigue life analysis, using either computational fracture mechanics or strain life theory, agreed reasonably well with the test data.

The effect of B and Si additions on fracture and fatigue performance of vacuum carburized 4320 steel and modifications of 4320 steel containing additions of Si (1.0 and 2.0 wt pct) and B (0 and 17 ppm) was evaluated by bending fatigue testing. Three rates of gas quenching, in 10 bar nitrogen and 15 and 20 bar helium, were used to cool specimens after carburizing. The B, protected by Ti additions, together with the Si additions, increased core hardenability. The B/Si modified steels showed no improvement in fatigue resistance, as measured by endurance limits established by 10 million cycle runouts without fracture. However, scanning electron microscopy showed that Si reduced sensitivity to intergranular fracture or quench embrittlement, a major cause of bending fatigue crack initiation, and contributed to variable fatigue performance, with both low-cycle failures and runout performance at applied stresses significantly above measured endurance limits.

Prediction of fatigue performance of large structures and components is generally done through the use of a fatigue analysis software, FEA stress/strain analysis, load spectra, and materials properties generated from laboratory tests with small specimens. Prior experience and test data has shown that a specimen size effect exists, i.e. the fatigue strength or endurance limit of large members is lower than that of small specimens made of same material. Obviously, the size effect is an important issue in fatigue design of large components. However a precise experimental study of the size effect is very difficult for several reasons. It is difficult to prepare geometrically similar specimens with increased volume which have the same microstructures and residual stress distributions throughout the entire material volume to be tested. Fatigue testing of large samples can also be a problem due to the limitation of load capacity of the test systems available.

The effects of several variables on pitting fatigue life of carburized steels were analyzed using a geared roller test machine (GRTM). The material variables that were primarily used to influence retained austenite include aim surface carbon concentration (0.8 % and 0.95 %), alloy (SAE 4320 and a modified SAE 4122), and cold treatment (performed on one material condition per alloy). Testing variables included contact stress in addition to a variation in lambda ratio (oil film thickness/surface roughness), arising from variation in roughness among the machined surfaces. Test results are presented, and differences in performance are considered in terms of material and testing variables. A primary observation from these results is an improvement in contact fatigue resistance apparently arising from cold-treatment and the associated reduction of retained austenite at the surface.

The effects of elevated testing temperature on the fatigue behavior of carburized steel were evaluated by testing modified Brügger bending fatigue specimens at room temperature, 90 °C and 150 °C. SAE 4023, SAE 4320, and SAE 9310 steel were studied to assess the influence of alloy content and stability of retained austenite. Fatigue samples were gas-carburized and tested in air at 30 Hz with a stress ratio of 0.1. An infrared spot lamp was used to heat samples to 90 °C (150 °F) or 150 °C (302 °F) during testing. S-N curves were developed for the room temperature baseline tests as well as elevated temperature tests. The endurance limits determined are as follows: SAE 4023-RT (1170 MPa), SAE 4023-90°C (1140 MPa), SAE 4320-RT (1210 MPa), SAE 4320-90°C (1280 MPa), SAE 9310-RT (1380 MPa), SAE 9310-90°C (1240 MPa).

High strain rate test methods to obtain strain-rate dependent sheet steel tensile properties are considered. A tensile test method for sheet steels was developed to obtain accurate stress-strain data over the strain rate range from 0.001 s-1 to 500 s-1 using a servo-hydraulic test machine and tensile samples instrumented with strain gages. Results on several different automotive sheet steels, including interstitial free (IF), high strength low alloy (HSLA), dual phase (DP), and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels, are presented. The results show that strain rate response differs between the various alloy systems. These results are compared with previously published data on strain-rate dependent steel properties. The importance of stress-strain curve shapes, which depend on alloy system, on energy absorption calculations using areas under stress-strain curves are also described.

The effects of deep rolling were evaluated by reviewing the fatigue performance of three medium-carbon (0.4 C) bar steels representing microstructural classes characteristic of forging steels used for crankshaft and other automotive applications. Deep rolling is a surface deformation process whereby a radially symmetric work piece undergoes a surface deformation operation. The steel grades included a quenched and tempered alloy steel (4140) that demonstrated a high yield stress and low strain hardening rate, a non-traditional bainitic experimental grade (1.2 Mn, 0.72 Si) containing high amounts of retained austenite with low yield stress and high strain hardening rate, and a ferritic/pearlitic grade (1.3 Mn, 0.56 Si) with a low yield stress and medium strain rate hardening rate. A reproducible test methodology to assess fatigue behavior was developed, based on flex-beam, fully reversed, S-N type laboratory fatigue testing.

The effectiveness of three different techniques, designed to improve the bending fatigue life in comparison to conventionally processed gas-carburized 8620 steel, were evaluated with modified Brugger bending fatigue specimens and actual ring and pinion gears. The bending fatigue samples were machined from forged gear blanks from the same lot of material used for the pinion gear tests, and all processing of laboratory samples and gears was done together. Fatigue data were obtained on standard as-carburized parts and after three special processing histories: shot-peening to increase surface residual stresses; double heat treating to refined austenite grain size; and vacuum carburizing to minimize intergranular oxidation. Standard room-temperature S-N curves and endurance limits were obtained with the laboratory samples. The pinions were run as part of a complete gear set on a laboratory dynamometer and data were obtained at two imposed torque levels.

Knowledge of high strain-rate deformation behavior of automotive body structural materials is of importance for design of new vehicles with improved crash-energy management characteristics. Since a large range of plastic strains is encountered during the forming process prior to assembly, the mechanical behavior of sheet steels under high strain rate deformation conditions must be understood after pre-straining, in addition to the as-produced condition. This paper presents the compression testing methodology employed to examine these properties, and focuses on the effects of quasi-static pre-strains (from 0 to 20%) on the subsequent behavior of a low carbon interstitial free steel tested over a broad range of strain rates (from 10−2 to 103s−1). The results suggest that the increase in yield stress associated with increasing strain rate is not substantially influenced by prior cold work.

Springback in sheet metal forming is becoming a very troublesome issue with the increased use of high strength steels in automobiles. The current trend for many applications is to reduce vehicle weight by down-gaging, that is, substituting higher strength, thinner steels for lower strength, thicker steels. The primary springback concern in sheet metal forming is variation in springback, rather than the magnitude of the springback. Even large springback can be accommodated if it can be consistently predicted. Variations in springback are caused by variations in mechanical properties and gage, and by fluctuations in the conditions of the forming process. This paper addresses the expected springback issues associated with the application of high strength sheet steels in light of strength and thickness uniformity. A simple expression is used to show how variations in yield strength and gage may be expected to influence springback in sheet metal forming.

The effects of prestrain and zinc coating type on the bending fatigue behavior of titanium-stabilized interstitial free steel were evaluated. From a single zinc bath chemistry, coated sheet steel samples were prepared with either a hot dip galvanized or galvannealed coating. Uniaxial tensile prestrains of 2 and 4 pct. were introduced parallel to the rolling direction on 12.7 cm wide strips. Krouse-type fatigue samples were machined both parallel and transverse to the rolling/prestrain direction. Reversed bending S-N fatigue data showed that the fatigue resistance depended on a complex interaction between the strength increase due to work hardening and fatigue crack development as altered by the presence of the coatings. For both coating types the fatigue resistance increased with prestrain. During prestrain, coating cracks oriented perpendicular to the tensile prestrain direction developed and the crack density was greater in the galvannealed materials.

Ultra-low carbon sheet steel with excess stabilizing elements such as titanium, niobium and vanadium can be strengthened via internal nitriding in an ammonia/nitrogen atmosphere. Strength can be imparted to the sheet either in coil form in an open coil annealing (OCA) furnace or after forming in a batch-type component nitriding process. The latter strengthening method presents several advantages over conventional high strength steels including lower forming loads and increased part complexity (enhanced formability). To illustrate the effects of the nitriding thermal cycle on the dimensional stability and residual stress levels of formed parts, a post-forming nitrided steel was compared to a conventional commercially produced high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel in laboratory simulations. A slit-ring technique was used to measure residual stresses and dimensional stability. The residual stress relief as a function of nitriding time was measured for various nitriding temperatures.

The fatigue behavior of five microalloyed steels, processed with hardnesses between 25-28 HRC containing microstructures ranging from precipitation-hardened ferrite-pearlite to bainite, were evaluated in both low cycle (strain controlled) and high cycle (stress controlled fatigue. The vanadium-bearing steels included, 15R30V, 1522 MoVTi, 1522 MoVTiS, 1534 MoVTi, and 1534 MoVTiSi. Conventional quench and tempered 4140 steel was used as a reference. Low cycle fatigue (LCF) data for all steels were similar. Subtle microstructural-dependent differences in the high-strain amplitude region of the LCF curves were attributed to the effects of retained austenite, present in some of the non-traditional bainitic steels. In high cycle fatigue, all steels exhibited similar properties, except for the ferrite-pearlite steel (15R30V) which exhibited the lowest endurance limit, an observation which was attributed to crack nucleation in coarse-grained ferrite.

A large set of bending fatigue data on carburized steels has been statistically analyzed to quantitatively describe the effects of process and microstructural variables. Increasing demands on gear steels require a broad examination of past bending fatigue research to reveal the primary factors that determine fatigue performance and guide future gear steel design. Fatigue performance was correlated to specimen characteristics such as retained austenite content, case and core grain size, extent of intergranular oxidation, surface roughness, and the case profiles of residual stress, hardness, and carbon content. Prior austenite grain size in the case and surface residual stress were found to most strongly influence bending fatigue endurance limit. A multiple regression model to predict endurance limit achieved an R-squared value of 0.56.