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Abstract With increasing demands for higher performance along with lower vehicle emissions, lightweight vehicle system construction is key to meet such demands. Suspension and transmission assemblies being the key areas for weight-reduction, we have designed a revolutionary new type of suspension system which combines the suspension links with the powertrain assembly and thus completely eliminates one suspension member. Less weight means lower fuel-consumption with improved passenger-comfort and road-holding due to reduction in unsprung mass. Elimination of a suspension link reduces the overall cost of material, machining & fabrication making our design cost-effective than existing setups. This paper deals with the design and implementation of of our concept. A working prototype is also constructed and tested which completely validates our design.

Abstract Investigation of vehicle resistant forces and power losses is of crucial importance owing to current state of energy consumption in transport sector. Meanwhile, considerable portion of resistant forces in a ground vehicle is traced back to tires. Pneumatic tires are known to be a source of energy dissipation as a consequence of their viscoelastic nature. The current study aims to provide a modification to tire resistance by considering the power loss in a tire due to longitudinal slip. The modified tire resistance is comprised of rolling resistance and a newly introduced resistance caused by tire slip, called slip resistance. The physical model is chosen for parameters sensitivity study since the tractive force is described in this model via tangible physical parameters, e.g. tire tangential stiffness, coefficient of friction, and contact patch length.

Abstract The transient surface pressure over a full-scale, operational compact automotive vehicle—a Volkswagen Golf 7—exposed to transient crosswinds with relative yaw angles of β = 22-45° has been characterized. Experiments were performed at the BMW side-wind facility in Aschheim, Germany. Measurements of the incoming flow in front of the car were taken with eleven five-hole dynamic pressure probes, and separately, time-resolved surface pressure measurements at 188 locations were performed. Unsteady characteristics (not able to be identified in quasi-steady modelling) have been identified: the flow in separated regions on the vehicle’s leeward side takes longer to develop than at the windward side, and spatially, the vehicle experiences local crosswind as it gradually enters the crosswind.

Abstract Rolling-resistance is leading the direction of numerous tire developments due to its significant effect on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions considering the vehicles in use globally. Many attempts were made to reduce rolling-resistance in vehicles, but with no or limited success due to tire complexity and trade-offs. This article investigates the concept of multiple chambers inside the tire as a potential alternative solution for reducing rolling-resistance. To accomplish that, novel multi-chamber designs were introduced and numerically simulated through finite-element (FE) modeling. The FE models were compared against a standard design as the baseline. The influences on rolling-resistance, grip, cornering, and mechanical comfort were studied. The multi-chambers tire model reduced rolling-resistance considerably with acceptable trade-offs. Independent air volumes isolating tread from sidewalls would maintain tire’s profile effectively.

Abstract To reduce fuel consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from mobile air conditioning (A/C) systems, “U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards” identified solar/thermal technologies such as solar control glazings, solar reflective paint, and active and passive cabin ventilation in an off-cycle credit menu. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) researchers developed a sophisticated analysis process to calculate U.S. light-duty A/C fuel use that was used to assess the impact of these technologies, leveraging thermal and vehicle simulation analysis tools developed under previous U.S. Department of Energy projects. Representative U.S. light-duty driving behaviors and weighting factors including time-of-day of travel, trip duration, and time between trips were characterized and integrated into the analysis.

Abstract A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and wind tunnel investigation of a human powered vehicle (HPV), designed by the Velo Racing Team at Ostfalia University, is undertaken to analyse the Eco-body’s drag efficiency. Aimed at competing in a high profile HPV speed record competition, the vehicle’s aerodynamic efficiency is shown to compare well with successful recent eco-body designs. Despite several limitations, newly obtained wind tunnel data shows that the corresponding CFD simulations offer an effective tool for analysing and refining the HPV design. It is shown that, in particular, the design of the rear wheel fairings, as well as the ride height of the vehicle, may be optimised further. In addition, refinements to the CFD and wind tunnel methodologies are recommended to help correlation.

Abstract An investigation into the capability of passive porosity to reduce the drag of a bluff-body is presented. This initial work involves integrating varying degrees of porosity into the side and back faces of a small-scale model to determine optimum conditions for maximum drag reduction. Both force and pressure measurements at differing degrees of model yaw are presented, with the conditions for optimum performance, identified. At a length-based Reynolds number of 2.3 × 106, results showed a maximum drag reduction of 12% at zero yaw when the ratio of the open area on the back face relative to the side faces was between two and four. For all non-zero yaw angles tested, this ratio reduced to approximately two, with the drag benefit reducing to 6% at 10.5 degrees. From a supplementary theoretical analysis, calculated optimum bleed rate into the base for maximum drag reduction, also showed reasonable agreement to other results reported previously.

Abstract With increased consumer demand for fuel efficient vehicles as well as more stringent greenhouse gas regulations and/or Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards from governments around the globe, the automotive industry, including the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and suppliers, is working diligently to innovate in all areas of vehicle design. In addition to improving aerodynamics, enhancing internal combustion engines and transmission technologies, and developing alternative fuel vehicles, mass reduction has been identified as an important strategy in future vehicle development. In this article, the development, analysis, and experiment of multi-cornered structures are presented. To achieve mass reduction, two non-traditional multi-cornered structures, with twelve- and sixteen-cornered cross-sections, were developed separately by using computer simulations.

Abstract A two-dimensional model of three elements, high-lift airfoil, was designed at a Reynolds number of ?????? using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to generate downforce with good lift-to-drag efficiency for a formula student open-wheel race car basing on the nominal track speeds. The numerical solver uses the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation model coupled with the Langtry-Menter four-equation transition shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model. Such model adds two further equations to the ?? − ?? SST model resulting in an accurate prediction for the amount of flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient in low Reynolds number flow. The ?? − ?? SST model includes the transport effects into the eddy-viscosity formulation, whereas the two equations of transition momentum thickness Reynolds number and intermittency should further consider transition effects at low Reynolds number.

Abstract In this study, two types of drag reduction devices (a horizontal plate, and a vertical plate) are used to weaken the downwash of the upper flow and c-pillar vortex of the DrivAer notchback model driving at high speed (140 km/h). By analyzing and comparing 15 cases in total, the aerodynamic drag reduction mechanism can be used in the development of vehicles. First, various CFD simulation conditions of a baseline model were compared to determine the analysis condition that efficiently calculates the correct aerodynamic drag. The vertical plate and horizontal plate applied in the path of the c-pillar vortex and downwash suppressed vortex development and induced rapid dissipation. As a result, the application of a 50-mm wedge-shaped vertical plate to the trunk weakened the vortex and reduced the drag by 3.3% by preventing the side flow from entering the trunk top.

Abstract Sports Utility Vehicles (SUVs) often have blunt rear end geometries for design and practicality, which is not typically aerodynamic. Drag can be reduced with a number of passive and active methods, which are generally prioritised at zero yaw, which is not entirely representative of the “on road” environment. As such, to combine a visually square geometry (at rest) with optimal drag reductions at non-zero yaw, an adaptive system that applies vertical side edge tapers independently is tested statically. A parametric study has been undertaken in Loughborough University’s Large Wind Tunnel with the ¼ scale Windsor Model. The aerodynamic effect of implementing asymmetric side tapering has been assessed for a range of yaw angles (0°, ±2.5°, ±5° and ±10°) on the force and moment coefficients.

Abstract Aerodynamic optimization of the exterior vehicle shape is a highly multidisciplinary task involving, among others, styling and aerodynamics. The often differing priorities of these two disciplines give rise to iterative loops between stylists and aerodynamicists. Reduced-order modeling (ROM) has the potential to shortcut these loops by enabling aerodynamic evaluations in real time. In this study, we aim to assess the performance of ROM via proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) for a real-life industrial test case, with focus on the achievable accuracy for the prediction of fields and aerodynamic coefficients. To that end, we create a training data set based on a six-dimensional parameterization of a Volkswagen passenger production car by computing 100 variants with Detached-Eddy simulations (DES).

Abstract This article presents the application of the Enhanced Sequence Diagram (ESD) for the analysis of the functionality of a system with shape-changing aspects in the context of its multiple operational modes, considering an active real spoiler as a case study. The article provides new insights on the ESD support for model-based capture and articulation of functional requirements across multiple operation modes of the same system, with appropriate detail on attributes and metrics, and the alignment of these attributes and metrics in line with the concept of time through scope lines. The article also provides a comprehensive argument and discussion, exemplified based on the case study, for the support that the ESD provides for early systems functional and architecture analysis, within the context of a broader model-based Failure Mode Analysis methodology.

Abstract A wind-tunnel study was undertaken to investigate the drag reduction potential of two-truck platooning, in the context of understanding some of the factors that may influence the potential fuel savings and greenhouse-gas reductions. Testing was undertaken in the National Research Council Canada 2 m × 3 m Wind Tunnel with two 1/15-scale models of modern aerodynamic tractors paired with dry-van trailers configured with and without combinations of side-skirts and boat-tails. Separation distances of 0.14, 0.28, 0.49, 0.70 and 1.04 vehicle lengths were tested (3 m, 6 m, 10.5 m, 15 m, and 22.5 m full scale). Additionally, within-lane lateral offsets up to 0.31 vehicle widths (0.8 m full scale) were evaluated, along with a full-lane offset of 1.42 vehicle widths (3.7 m full scale). This study has made use of a wind-averaged-drag coefficient as the primary metric for evaluating the effect of vehicle platooning.

Abstract Fuel consumption is at an all-time high, with crude oil set to get depleted in the next two decades. Drag force is one of the major components responsible for decreasing mileage and thus increasing fuel consumption in vehicles. Using passive modifications such as spherical depressions on the body surface, aerodynamic drag experienced by passenger vehicles can be significantly reduced. Spherical depressions are designed to delay flow separation, following which the wake size is reduced, resulting in a decrease in drag force. In this study, computer-aided design (CAD) models of generalized lightweight vehicles are made with dimples at the sides of the car, having a diameter of 60 mm and a center-to-center distance of 90 mm. Several models are created having depression aspect ratios (ARs) of 2, 4, 6, and 8, and each model is simulated to velocities of 22 m/s, 24 m/s, 26 m/s, 28 m/s, and 30 m/s.

Abstract The principal issue in choosing an energy management strategy (EMS) for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) has been the way of determining the optimal share of electric energy in hybrid drive. In this article, a novel EMS is proposed that, along with maximum engine efficiency in the hybrid drive, can optimize the share of battery energy for the maximum efficiency of vehicle power train expanded with an imaginary power plant that, by delivering the electric energy to a grid, feeds the vehicle battery. It is proved that the expanded power train efficiency has the local maximum for a wide range of wheel power demand. The relation between the wheel power demand in hybrid drive, the share of battery energy, and the maximum efficiency of the expanded power train is conducted offline. Downloaded to the onboard control system, it enables the operation with the instantaneously optimal share of battery energy and the control system to operate with the low computational load.

Abstract In recent years, lean-burn gasoline Spark-Ignition (SI) engines have been a major subject of investigations. With this solution, in fact, it is possible to simultaneously reduce NOx raw emissions and fuel consumption due to decreased heat losses, higher thermodynamic efficiency, and enhanced knock resistance. However, the real applicability of this technique is strongly limited by the increase in cyclic variation and the occurrence of misfire, which are typical for the combustion of homogeneous lean air/fuel mixtures. The employment of a Pre-Chamber (PC), in which the combustion begins before proceeding in the main combustion chamber, has already shown the capability of significantly extending the lean-burn limit. In this work, the potential of an ultralean PC SI engine for a decisive improvement of the thermal efficiency is presented by means of numerical and experimental analyses.

Abstract This article aims to identify the best combination of intake port angle (IPA) and cylinder head pentroof angle (PA) of a gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine to achieve a simultaneous reduction in the fuel consumption and the exhaust emissions using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and optimization techniques. The present study is carried out on a single-cylinder, four-stroke GDI engine. The design space is bound by the range of the IPA (35°, 80°) and the PA (5°, 20°). The initial data set consists of 80 design points, which are generated using the uniform Latin hypercube (ULH) algorithm. CFD simulations were carried out at all the points in the initial data set using CONVERGE at engine speed of 2,000 rev/min and the overall equivalence ratio of 0.7 ± 0.05.

Abstract The development of the technology of automated highways promises the opportunity for the vehicles to travel safely at a closer distance concerning each other. As such, vehicles moving in the wake of others experience a reduction in fuel consumption. This article investigates the effect of longitudinal distance between two passenger cars on drag coefficients numerically and experimentally. For the numerical analysis, the fluid flow at car speeds of 70, 90 and 110 km/h were examined. The Artificial Intelligence coding was applied to train an Artificial Neural Network to extend the calculated data. The optimum values for the inter-vehicle distance and the vehicle speed to assure the least drag coefficient are obtained. To support the numerical results an instrument designed and built particularly to accurately measure the fuel consumption was installed on a midsize sedan car and some field tests were carried out.

Abstract This work presents a numerical study of the performance and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions of a conventional ethanol engine converted to work as a flex-fuel nonconventional architecture: the Split-Cycle Engine (SCE). For this study, the conventional engine fueled with hydrous ethanol was modeled and validated with data from experimental tests. Then the model was converted to operate as an SCE with two compressors and two expanders and simulated with a progressive downsizing of the compressors of the SCE. When the swept volume of the compressors was reduced to 87% of that of the expanders, the thermal conversion efficiency increased by 3.3%. Because of this, the downsized SCE was submitted to simulation runs using two different fuels: hydrous ethanol (H100) and an indolene-ethanol blend (H85). The results of the simulations were compared to the experimental results of the conventional engine.