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Innovations in mobility are built upon a management of complex interactions between sub-systems and components. A need for CAE tools that are capable of system simulations is well recognized, as evidenced by a growing number of commercial packages. However impressive they are, the predictability of such simulations still rests on the representation of the base components. Among them, a wet clutch actuator continues to play a critical role in the next generation propulsion systems. It converts hydraulic pressure to mechanical force to control torque transmitted through a clutch pack. The actuator is typically modeled as a hydraulic piston opposed by a mechanical spring. Because the piston slides over a seal, some models have a framework to account for seal friction. However, there are few contributions to the literature that describe the effects of seals on clutch actuator behaviors.

A wet clutch model is required in automotive propulsion system simulations for enabling robust design and control development. It commonly assumes Coulomb friction for simplicity, even though it does not represent the physics of hydrodynamic torque transfer. In practice, the Coulomb friction coefficient is treated as a tuning parameter in simulations to match vehicle data for targeted conditions. The simulations tend to deviate from actual behaviors for different drive conditions unless the friction coefficient is adjusted repeatedly. Alternatively, a complex hydrodynamic model, coupled with a surface contact model, is utilized to enhance the fidelity of system simulations for broader conditions. The theory of elastic asperity deformation is conventionally employed to model clutch surface contact. However, recent examination of friction material shows that the elastic modulus of surface fibers significantly exceeds the contact load, implying no deformation of fibers.

Wet clutch packs are widely used in today’s automatic transmission systems for gear-ratio shifting. The frictional interfaces between the clutch plates are continuously lubricated with transmission fluid for both thermal and friction management. The open clutch packs shear transmission fluid across the rotating plates, contributing to measurable energy losses. A typical multi-speed transmission includes as many as 5 clutch packs. Of those, two to three clutches are open at any time during a typical drive cycle, presenting an opportunity for fuel economy gain. However, reducing open clutch drag is very challenging, while meeting cooling requirements and shift quality targets. In practice, clutch design adjustment is performed through trial-and-error evaluation of hardware on a test bench. The use of analytical methodologies is limited for optimizing clutch design features due to the complexity of fluid-structure interactions under rotating conditions.

A new generation of a planetary-gear-based automatic transmission system is designed with an increasing number of ratio steps. It requires synchronous operation of one or more wet clutches, to achieve a complex shift event. A missed synchronization results in drive torque disturbance which may be perceived by vehicle occupants as an undesirable shift shock. Accurate knowledge of clutch behaviors in an actual vehicle environment is indispensable for achieving precise clutch controls and reducing shift calibration effort. Wet clutches are routinely evaluated on an industry-standard SAE#2 tester during the clutch design process. While it is a valuable tool for screening relative frictional behaviors, clutch engagement data from a SAE#2 tester do not correlate well with vehicle shift behaviors due to the limited reproducibility of realistic slip, actuator force profiles, and lubrication conditions.

An analytic model of powertrain efficiency on a drive cycle was developed and evaluated using hundreds of cars and trucks from the US EPA ‘Test Car Lists’. The efficiency properties of naturally aspirated and downsized turbocharged engines were compared for vehicles with automatic transmissions on the US cycles. The resulting powertrain cycle efficiency model is proportional to the powertrain marginal energy conversion efficiency K, which is also its upper limit. It decreases as the powertrain matching parameters, the displacement-to-mass ratio (D/M) and the gearing ratio (n/V), increase. The inputs are the powertrain fuel consumption, the vehicle road load, and the cycle work requirement. They could be modeled simply with only minor approximations through the use of absolute inputs and outputs, and systematic use of scaling. On the Highway test, conventional automatic transmission vehicles of moderate performance achieve between 25% and 30% powertrain efficiency.

A step-ratio automatic transmission alters torque paths for gearshifting through engagement and disengagement of clutches. It enables torque sources to run efficiently while meeting driver demand. Yet, clutch thermal energy during gearshifting is one of the contributors to the overall fuel loss. In order to optimize drivetrain control strategy, including the frequency of shifts, it is important to understand the cost of shift itself. In a power-on upshift, clutch thermal energy is primarily dissipated during inertia phase. The interaction between multiple clutches, coupled with input torque truncation, makes the decomposition of overall energy loss less obvious. This paper systematically presents the mathematical analysis of clutch thermal energy during the inertia phase of a typical single-transition gearshift. In practice, a quicker shift is generally favored, partly because the amount of energy loss is considered smaller.

Lubricating oil affects the performance of friction materials in transmission, steering and brake systems. The TO-2 Test measured friction retention characteristics of lubricating oils used with sintered bronze friction discs. This paper introduces a new friction performance test for drive train lubricants that will be used to support Caterpillar's new transmission and drive train fluid requirements, TO-4, which measures static and dynamic friction, wear, and energy capacity for six friction materials, and replaces the TO-2 test. The new test device to be introduced is an oil cooled, single-faced clutch in the Link Engineering Co. M1158 Oil/Friction Test Machine.

This paper details a study of the effects of multiple torque converter design and operating point parameters on the resistance of the converter to cavitation during vehicle launch. The onset of cavitation is determined by an identifiable change in the noise radiating from the converter during operation, when the collapse of cavitation bubbles becomes detectable by nearfield acoustical measurement instrumentation. An automated torque converter dynamometer test cell was developed to perform these studies, and special converter test fixturing is utilized to isolate the test unit from outside disturbances. A standard speed sweep test schedule is utilized, and an analytical technique for identifying the onset of cavitation from acoustical measurement is derived. Effects of torque converter diameter, torus dimensions, and pump and stator blade designs are determined.

An analytical model is developed to describe the torsional responses of the powertrain system. The model is used to analyze system equilibrium, free vibration, forced and self-excited vibrations. The equations of motion are linearized about the equilibrium to determine natural frequencies and mode shapes of the torsional modes. The forced responses of the system are investigated by including the excitations of gas combustion forces and inertia torques induced by the reciprocating motions of the piston and connecting rod. The self-excited vibration induced by negative damping behavior of clutch torque capacity is studied. For an example rear-wheel drive powertrain considered, the free vibration analyses show the natural frequencies and the associated mode shapes. The forced and the self-excited vibrations for the transmission gearset and the driveline components are examined. Experimental measurements from a test powertrain are used to confirm the theoretical predictions.

The 4T65-E transmission produced by General Motors is the third evolution of GM's original 4-speed F.W.D. automatic. This most recent redesign introduced for the 1997 model year meets new corporate goals for fuel economy and reduced noise, along with the ability to adjust shift character to meet the brand image of the various nameplates. Improving fuel economy and cooling at increased engine power levels was enabled by designing a larger diameter torque converter with the aid of 3-D modeling. The new converter has reduced internal leakage and incorporates a controlled slip clutch. Improvements in NVH have been achieved through a revised oil pump design and the use of the new phased drive chain, made affordable by the joint development of powdered metal technology required for the unique sprocket design.

The effect of friction modifiers on the low-speed frictional properties of automatic transmission fluids (ATFs) was investigated by scanning force microscopy (SFM). A clutch lining material was covered by a droplet of test ATF, and a steel tip was scanned over the sample. The scanning speeds were varied from 0.13 to 8.56 mm /sec, and the frictional force was deduced from the torsion of the SFM cantilever. A reduction in dynamic friction due to the addition of the friction modifier was clearly observed over the entire speed range. This indicates that the boundary lubrication mechanism is dominant under this condition, and therefore surface-active friction modifiers can effectively improve the frictional characteristics. The friction reduction was more pronounced at lower sliding speeds. Thus addition of friction modifiers produced a more positive slope in the μ-ν (friction vs. sliding speed) plots, and would contribute to make wet clutch systems less susceptible to shudder vibrations.

Automatic transmissions equipped with Modulated Torque Converter Clutches (MTCC) require an effective combination of automatic transmission fluid (ATF) - friction material in order to maintain frictional integrity. However, in this study, thermal analysis has shown that ATFs can interact chemically with a friction material used in the MTCC under service conditions, potentially affecting the frictional characteristics. A technique was developed to evaluate friction material degradation. The results of this study showed that the friction material my be chemically altered by static aging in certain ATFs at elevated temperatures. The statically aged friction material samples exhibited thermal analysis signatures which were similar to identical material degraded during dynamometer and fleet vehicle tests. These vehicle tests resulted in deterioration in friction characteristics and experienced shudder.

This paper describes the creation of novel transmission mechanisms using algebraic design techniques. The objective is to create novel arrangements comprised of one or more planetary gear sets, a pair of motor-generators and several torque-transmitting mechanisms (clutches and brakes). The algebraic design procedure represents the planetary gear sets, fixed interconnections, clutches/brakes, and motor-generator sets as algebraic constraints. Appropriate subsets of constraint equations are solved to identify viable transmission mechanism designs. We have used the above design approach to create several novel candidate multi-speed transmissions as well as EVT concepts. The main benefit of the algebraic design procedure is that it allows the designer to systematically generate and assess novel designs.

As part of the International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee's (ILSAC) goal of developing a global automatic transmission fluid (ATF) specification, members have been evaluating test methods that are currently used by various automotive manufacturers for qualifying ATF for use in their respective transmissions. This report deals with comparing test methods used for determining torque capacity in friction systems (shifting clutches). Three test methods were compared, the Plate Friction Test from the General Motors DEXRON®-III Specification, the Friction Durability Test from the Ford MERCON® Specification, and the Japanese Automotive Manufacturers Association Friction Test - JASO Method 348-95. Eight different fluids were evaluated. Friction parameters used in the comparison were breakaway friction, dynamic friction torque at midpoint and the end of engagement, and the ratio of end torque to midpoint torque.

Imbalances of an automatic transmission have a direct impact on NVH. To measure those imbalances, one needs to overcome two hurdles: (1) Phase uncertainty of individual component imbalance due to clutch indexing; (2) Imbalance separation of transmission from other systems, such as driveshaft and engine crank, connected to the transmission. To attack those issues, an algorithm has been developed which can deal with the phase issue caused by clutch engagement, and separate transmission imbalance at the system level without individually measuring other system imbalances. The method has been verified with several vehicle programs in both vehicle and dynamometer tests.

Using a clutch to disconnect and shut-off the engine when engine power is not required, the single-motor strong hybrid has the potential for significant fuel economy improvement with reduced costs and less system complexity. However, it is a challenge for the single-motor strong hybrid to maintain acceptable drivability at engine start since it requires diverting motor torque through a slipping clutch to start the engine. In this study, dynamic simulations of the hybrid transmission driveline with hydraulic and motor controls have been employed to assess the feasibility of the single-motor strong hybrid, to address drivability issues specific to this hybrid architecture at engine start, and to develop control methods to manage driveline disturbances to an acceptable level.

Smaller locomotives often use mechanical transmissions instead of diesel-electric drive systems typically used in larger locomotives. This paper discusses how Model Based Design was used to develop the complete drive train control system for a 24 ton sugar cane locomotive. A complete MATLAB Simulink machine model was built to fully test and verify the shift control logic, traction control, vehicle speed limiting, and braking control for this locomotive application before it was commissioned. The model included the engine, torque converter, planetary transmission, drive line, and steel on steel driving surface. Simulation was used to debug all control code and test and refine control strategies so that the initial field commissioning in remote Australia was executed very quickly with minimal engineering support required.

Ford recently introduced an industry first Modular Hybrid Transmission (MHT) in the Model U concept vehicle at the 2003 North American International Auto Show. The MHT is a full function hybrid system (i.e. capable of electric drive) that utilizes a modular approach to leverage high volume conventional driveline components to create a lower-cost hybrid system [1]. In the MHT, the torque converter of a conventional automatic transmission is removed and in its place is packaged a single high voltage electric machine and an engine disconnect clutch. Advanced controls are used to enable hybrid functions. A critical element in the development of the MHT is the ability to replicate the functions of the torque converter without compromise to the vehicle drivability. In this paper, the control of four transmission functions in the MHT will be discussed: 1) transmission engagement, 2) vehicle launch, 3) power-on up-shift and 4) coast downshift.

The concept of the Modular Hybrid Transmission (MHT) is to use a production transmission design with modifications to create a new low investment cost parallel hybrid-electric powertrain. In the MHT system to be discussed, the torque converter has been replaced with a 40-kilowatt electric induction machine, which is coupled to a 300 volt - 3.6 Ah Lithium-Ion battery in a 1450 kg vehicle. Also, an added wet clutch system allows the engine to be disconnected from the electric machine enabling “electric only” driving. The drivability problems occur when the driver's desire to accelerate changes quickly and the engine is still shut down. This situation can occur both from rest and while already moving.

In this paper we describe the development and application of a CAE methodology to investigate stresses incurred in the torque converter anti-rattle spring subjected to various static and dynamic loading conditions. The objectives of this study are three-fold. First, develop and demonstrate a dynamic modeling methodology suitable for torque converter rattle analysis. Second, provide insight into the underlying physics in the hardware design and identify key parameters to achieve high-mileage improvement, and third, recommend feasible design and manufacturing parameters for design improvements. Anti-rattle springs have been widely used in torque converter clutch to reduce rattle noise between the spline interface of the cover plate and the piston plate. They are constantly subjected to static and dynamic stresses under various vehicle operation conditions.