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In order to extend the CAI operation range in 4-stroke mode and maximize the benefit of low fuel consumption and emissions in CAI mode, 2-stroke CAI combustion is revived operating in a GDI engine with poppet valves, where the conventional crankcase scavenging is replaced by boosted scavenging. The CAI combustion is achieved through the inherence of the 2-Stroke operation, which is retaining residual gas. A set of flexible hydraulic valve train was installed on the engine to vary the residual gas fraction under the boosting condition. The effects of spark timing, intake pressure and short-circuiting on 2-stroke CAI combustion and its emissions are investigated and discussed in this paper. Results show the engine could be controlled to achieve CAI operation over a wide range of engine speed and load in the 2-stroke mode because of the flexibility of the electro-hydraulic valvetrain system. Presenter Yan Zhang, Brunel University

Diffusive combustion of direct injected ethanol is investigated in a heavy-duty single cylinder engine for a broad range of operating conditions. Ethanol has a high potential as fossil fuel alternative, as it provides a better carbon footprint and has more sustainable production pathways. The introduction of ethanol as fuel for heavy-duty compression-ignition engines can contribute to decarbonize the transport sector within a short time frame. Given the resistance to autoignition of ethanol, the engine is equipped with two injectors mounted in the same combustion chamber, allowing the simultaneous and independent actuation of the main injection of pure ethanol and a pilot injection of diesel as an ignition source. The influence of the dual-fuel injection strategy on ethanol ignition, combustion characteristics, engine performance and NOx emissions is evaluated by varying the start of injection of both fuels and the ethanol-diesel ratio.

Lean-burn combustion is an effective method for increasing the thermal efficiency of gasoline engines fueled with stoichiometric fuel-air mixture, but leads to an unacceptable level of high cyclic variability before reaching ultra-low nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions emitted from conventional gasoline engines. Multi-point micro-flame ignited (MFI) hybrid combustion was proposed to overcome this problem, and can be can be grouped into double-peak type, ramp type and trapezoid type with very low frequency of appearance. This research investigates the micro-flame ignition stages of double-peak type and ramp type MFI combustion captured by high speed photography. The results show that large flame is formed by the fast propagation of multi-point flame occurring in the central zone of the cylinder in the double-peak type. However, the multiple flame sites occur around the cylinder, and then gradually propagate and form a large flame accelerated by the independent small flame in the ramp type.

Renewable fuels from different feedstocks can enable sustainable transport solutions with significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional petroleum-derived fuels. Nevertheless, the use of biofuels in diesel engines will still require similar exhaust gas cleaning systems as for conventional diesel. Hence, the use of diesel particulate filters (DPF) will persist as a much needed part of the vehicle’s aftertreatment system. Combustion of renewable fuels can potentially yield soot and ash with different properties as well as larger amounts of ash compared to conventional fossil fuels. The faster ash build-up and altered ash deposition pattern lead to an increase in pressure drop over the DPF, increase the fuel consumption and call for premature DPF maintenance or replacement. Prolonging the maintenance interval of the DPF for heavy-duty trucks, having a demand for high up-time, is highly desirable.

Turbocharger compressors are limited in their operating range at low mass flows by compressor surge, thus restricting internal combustion engine operation at low engine speeds and high mean effective pressures. Since the exact location of the surge line in the compressor map depends on the whole gas exchange system, a safety margin towards surge must be provided. Accurate early surge detection could reduce this margin. During surge, the compressor outlet pressure fluctuates periodically. The Hurst exponent of the compressor outlet pressure is applied in this paper as an indicator to evaluate how close to the surge limit the compressor operates. It is a measure of the time-series memory that approaches zero for anti-persistence of the time series. That is, a Hurst exponent close to zero means a high statistical preference that a high value is followed by a low value, as during surge.

To improve fuel efficiency and facilitate handling of the vehicle in a dense city environment, it should be as small as possible given its intended application. This downsizing trend impacts the size of the engine bay, where the air filter box has to be packed in a reduced space, still without increased pressure drop, reduced load capacity nor lower filtering efficiency. Due to its flexibility and reduced cost, CFD simulations play an important role in the optimization process of the filter design. Even though the air-flow through the filter box changes as the dust load increases, the current modeling framework seldom account for such time dependence. Volvo Car Corporation presents an industrial affordable model to solve the time-dependent dust load on filter elements and calculate the corresponding flow behavior over the life time of the air filter box.

Diesel engine manufacturers strive towards further efficiency improvements. Thus, reducing in-cylinder heat losses is becoming increasingly important. Understanding how location, thermal insulation, and engine operating conditions affect the heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls is fundamental for the future reduction of in-cylinder heat losses. This study investigates the effect of a 1mm-thick plasma-sprayed yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) coating on a piston. Such a coated piston and a similar steel piston are compared to each other based on experimental data for the heat release, the heat transfer rate to the oil in the piston cooling gallery, the local instantaneous surface temperature, and the local instantaneous surface heat flux. The surface temperature was measured for different crank angle positions using phosphor thermometry.

Renewable fuels have an important role to create sustainable energy systems. In this paper the focus is on biodiesel, which is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats. Today biodiesel is mostly used as a drop-in fuel, mixed into conventional diesel fuels to reduce their environmental impact. Low quality drop-in fuel can lead to deposits throughout the fuel systems of heavy duty vehicles. In a previous study fuel filters from the field were collected and analyzed with the objective to determine the main components responsible for fuel filter plugging. The identified compounds were constituents of soft particles. In the current study, the focus was on metal carboxylates since these have been found to be one of the components of the soft particles and associated with other engine malfunctions as well. Hence the measurement of metal carboxylates in the fuel is important for future studies regarding the fuel’s effect on engines.

Low combustion efficiency and high hydrocarbon emissions at low loads are key issues of natural gas and diesel (NG-diesel) dual fuel engines. For better engine performance, two diesel-spray-orientated (DSO) bowls were developed based on the existing diesel injector of a heavy-duty diesel engine with the purpose of placing more combustible natural gas/air mixture around the diesel spray jets. A protrusion-ring was designed at the rim of the piston bowl to enhance the in-cylinder flame propagation. Numerical simulations were conducted for a whole engine cycle at engine speed of 1200 r/min and indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) of 0.6 MPa. Extended coherent flame model 3 zones (ECFM-3Z) combustion model with built-in soot emissions model was employed. Simulation results of the original piston bowl agreed well with the experimental data, including in-cylinder pressure and heat released rate (HRR), as well as soot and methane emissions.

The Gasoline direct-injection (GDI) engine can emit high levels of particulate matter and unburned Hydrocarbons when operating under stratified charge combustion mode. Injecting late in the compression stroke means the fuel has insufficient time to atomise and evaporate. This could cause fuel film accumulation on the piston surface and combustion liner. Locally fuel rich diffusion combustion could also result in the formation of soot particles. Employing a split-injection strategy can help tackle these issues. The first injection is initiated early in the intake stroke and could ensure a global homogeneous charge. The second injection during the compression stroke could help form a fuel-rich charge in the vicinity of the spark plug. Many studies have established the crucial role that a split-injection strategy plays in the stratified charge operation of GDI engines.

Biofuel can enable a sustainable transport solution and lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to standard fuels. This study focuses on biodiesel, implemented in the easiest way as drop in fuel. When mixing biodiesel into diesel one can run into problems with solubility causing contaminants precipitating out as insolubilities. These insolubilities, also called soft particles, can cause problems such as internal injector deposits and nozzle fouling. One way to overcome the problem of soft particles is by filtration. It is thus of great interest to be able to quantify fuel filters’ ability to intercept soft particles. The aim of this study is to test different fuel filters for heavy-duty engines and their ability to filter out synthetic soft particles. A custom-built fuel filter rig is presented, together with some of its general design requirements. For evaluation of the efficiency of the filters, fuel samples were taken before and after the filters.

In this paper, a novel cost-effective air hybrid powertrain concept for buses and commercial vehicles, Brunel Regenerative Engine Braking Device (RegenEBD) technology, is presented and its performance during the braking process is analysed using the Ricardo WAVE engine simulation programme. RegenEBD is designed to convert kinetic energy into pneumatic energy in the compressed air saved in an air tank. Its operation is achieved by using a production engine braking device and a proprietary intake system design. During the braking operation, the engine switches from the firing mode to the compressor mode by keeping the intake valves from fully closed throughout the four-strokes by installing the Variable Valve Exhaust Brake (VVEB) device on the intake valves. As a result, the induced air could be compressed through the opening gap of intake valves into the air tank through the modified intake system.

The effects of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) on diesel engine exhaust emissions were isolated and studied in earlier investigations (1,2,3,4,5). This paper analyses the heat release patterns during the combustion process and co-relates the results with the exhaust emissions. The EGR effects considered include the dilution of the inlet charge with CO2 or water vapour, the increase in the inlet charge temperature, and the thermal throttling arising from the use of hot EGR. The use of diluents (CO2 and H2O), which are the principal constituents of EGR, caused an increase in ignition delay and a shift in the location of start of combustion. As a consequence of this shift, the whole combustion process was also shifted further towards the expansion stroke. This resulted in the products of combustion spending shorter periods at high temperatures which lowered the NOx formation rate.

This paper is a complementary to previous investigations by the authors (1,2,3,4) on the different effects of EGR on combustion and emissions in DI diesel engine. In addition to the several effects that cold EGR has on combustion and emissions the application of hot EGR results in increasing the inlet charge temperature, thereby, for naturally aspirated engines, lowering the inlet charge mass due to thermal throttling. An associated consequence of thermal throttling is the reduction in the amount of oxygen in the inlet charge. Uncooled EGR, therefore, affects combustion and emissions in two ways: through the reduction in the inlet charge mass and through the increase in inlet charge temperature. The effect on combustion and emissions of increasing the inlet charge temperature (without reducing the inlet charge mass) has been dealt with in ref. (1).

Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) combustion and engine performance and emission characteristics have been intensively investigated in a single-cylinder gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine with an air-assisted injector. The CAI combustion was obtained by residual gas trapping. This was achieved by using low-lift short-duration cams and early closing the exhaust valves. Effects of EVC (exhaust valve closure) and IVO (intake valve opening) timings, spark timing, injection timing, coolant temperature, compression ratio, valve lift and duration, on CAI combustion and emissions were investigated experimentally. The results show that the EVC timing, injection timing, compression ratio, valve lift and duration had significant influences on CAI combustion and emissions. Early EVC and injection timing, higher compression ratio and higher valve lift could enhance CAI combustion. IVO timing had minor effect on CAI combustion.

A multi-cycle three-dimensional CFD engine simulation programme has been developed and applied to analyze the Controlled autoignition (CAI) combustion, also known as homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), in a direct injection gasoline engine. CAI operation was achieved through the negative valve overlap method by means of a set of low lift camshafts. The effect of single injection timing on combustion phasing and underlying physical and chemical processes involved was examined through a series of analytical studies using the multi-cycle 3D engine simulation programme. The analyses showed that early injection into the trapped burned gases of a lean-burn mixture during the negative valve overlap period had a large effect on combustion phasing, due to localized heat release and the production of chemically reactive species. As the injection was retarded to the intake stroke, the charge cooling effect tended to slow down the autoignition process.

A fuel stratification concept has been developed in a three-valve twin-spark spark ignition engine. This concept requires that two fuels or fuel components of different octane numbers (ON) be introduced into the cylinder separately through two independent inlet ports. They are then stratified into two regions laterally by a strong tumbling flow and ignited by the spark plug located in each region. This engine can operate in the traditional stratified lean-burn mode at part loads to obtain a good part-load fuel economy as long as one fuel is supplied. At high loads, an improved fuel economy might also be obtained by igniting the low ON fuel first and leaving the high ON fuel in the end gas region to resist knock. This paper gives a detailed description of developing the fuel stratification concept, including optimization of in-cylinder flow, mixture and combustion.

CAI combustion has the potential to be the most clean combustion technology in internal combustion engines and is being intensively researched. Following the previous research on CAI combustion of gasoline fuel, systematic investigation is being carried out on the application of bio-fuels in CAI combustion. As part of an on-going research project, CAI combustion of methanol and ethanol was studied on a single-cylinder direct gasoline engine with an air-assisted injector. The CAI combustion was achieved by trapping part of burnt gas within the cylinder through using short-duration camshafts and early closure of the exhaust valves. During the experiment the engine speed was varied from 1200rpm to 2100rpm and the air/fuel ratio was altered from the stoichiometry to the misfire limit. Their combustion characteristics were obtained by analysing cylinder pressure trace.

The effects of load, speed, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) level and hydrogen addition level on the emissions from a diesel engine have been investigated. The experiments were performed on a 2.0 litre, 4 cylinder, direct injection engine with a high pressure common-rail injection system. Injection timing was varied between 14° BTDC and TDC and injection pressures were varied from 800 bar to 1400 bar to find a suitable base point. EGR levels were then varied from 0% to 40%. Hydrogen induction was varied between 0 and 6% vol. of the inlet charge. In the case of using hydrogen and EGR, the hydrogen replaced air. The load was varied from 0 to 5.4 bar BMEP at two engine speeds, 1500 rpm and 2500 rpm. For this investigation the carbon monoxide (CO), total unburnt hydrocarbons (THC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and the filter smoke number (FSN) were all measured.

Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI), also known as HCCI (Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition), is increasingly seen as a very effective way of lowering both fuel consumption and emissions from gasoline engines. Therefore, it's seen as one of the best ways to meet future engine emissions and CO2 legislations. This combustion concept was achieved in a Ford production, port-injected, 4 cylinder gasoline engine. The only major modification to the original engine was the replacement of the original camshafts by a new set of custom made ones. The CAI operation was accomplished by means of using residual gas trapping made possible by the use of VCT (variable cam timing) on both intake and exhaust camshafts. When running on CAI, the engine was able to achieve CAI combustion with in a load range of 0.5 to 4.5 BMEP, and a speed range of 1000 to 3500 rpm. In addition, spark assisted CAI operation was employed to extend the operational range of low NOx and low pumping loss at part-load conditions.