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The increasing use of downsized turbocharged gasoline engines for passengers cars and the new European homologation cycles (WLTC and RDE) both impose an optimization of the whole engine map. More weight is given to mid and high loads, thus enhancing knock and overfueling limitations. At low and moderate engine speeds, knock mitigation is one of the main issues, generally addressed by retarding spark advance thereby penalizing the combustion efficiency. At high engine speeds, knock still occurs but is less problematic. However, in order to comply with thermo-mechanical properties of the turbine, excess fuel is injected to limit the exhaust gas temperature while maximizing engine power, even with cooled exhaust manifolds. This also implies a decrease of the combustion efficiency and an increase in pollutant emissions. Water injection is one way to overcome both limitations.

In order to assist in fast design cycle of Diesel engines selective catalytic reduction (SCR) exhaust systems, significant endeavor is currently being made to improve numerical simulation accuracy of urea thermo-hydrolysis. In this article, the achievements of a recently developed urea semi-detailed decomposition chemical scheme are assessed using three available databases from the literature. First, evaporation and thermo-hydrolysis of urea-water solution (UWS) single-droplets hanged on a thin thermocouple ring (127 μm) as well as on a thick quartz (275 μm), have been simulated at ambient temperature conditions ranging from 473K to 773K. It has been shown that the numerical results, in terms of evaporation rate and urea gasification, as well as droplet temperature history are very close to the experiments if the heat flux coming from the droplet support is properly accounted for.

IFP Energies nouvelles (IFPEN) has a large experience in the development of engine simulation platforms. During the last decade, the Dual Flame Model (DFM), a physical 0-dimensional (0D) combustion model designed for Diesel applications, was developed and continuously improved. The DFM formalism allows to represent quite precisely the in-cylinder combustion process scenario, by accounting for the first order relevant physics impacting fuel oxidation. First of all, this allows to account for the impact of engine actuators on combustion (e.g. injection systems performing complex injection strategies, Low Pressure and High Pressure EGR loops,…) and then to describe the pollutant emissions formation processes, being chemical kinetics strongly dependent on the in-cylinder thermochemical conditions. The aim of this communication is to present the potential of using the DFM model in the different stages of a Diesel engine development process for pollutant emissions optimization.

The reduction of particulate emissions is one of the most important challenges facing the development of future gasoline engines. Several studies have demonstrated the impact of fuel chemical composition on the emissions of particulate matter, more particularly, the detrimental effect of high boiling point components such as heavy aromatics. Fuel contamination is likely to become a critical issue as new regulations such as Real Driving Emissions RDE involves the use of market fuel. The objective of this study is to investigate several experimental approaches to detect the presence of Diesel contamination in Gasoline which is likely to alter pollutant emissions. To achieve this, a fuel matrix composed of 12 fuels was built presenting diesel fuel in varying concentrations from 0.1 to 2% v/v. The fuel matrix was characterized using several original techniques developed in this study.

The Engine Combustion Network (ECN) has become a leading group concerning the experimental and computational analysis of engine combustion phenomena. In order to establish a coherent database for model validation, all the institutions participating in the experimental effort carry out tests at well-defined boundary conditions and using wellcharacterized hardware. In this framework, the reference Spray A injectors have produced different results even when tested in the same facility, highlighting that the nozzle employed and its fouling are important parameters to be accounted for. On the other hand, the number of the available Spray A injectors became an issue, due to the increasing number of research centers and simultaneous experiments taking place in the ECN community. The present work has a double aim: on the one hand, to seek for an appropriate methodology to “validate” new injectors for ECN experiments and to provide new hardware for the ECN community.

Future pollutant emissions legislations are expected to be increasingly stringent. To reduce Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions produced by Diesel engines, advanced combustion technologies - like Low Temperature Combustion (LTC) -, vehicle hybridization and NOx after-treatment systems - such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems - can be considered, leading to a growing demand for NOx models. In this paper, we present a state-of-art of the different existing NOx models, from the black-boxes to the three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) codes. A way to classify these models is proposed. The paper also introduces the current applications for each subgroup of models. Then, a black-box and two grey-box NOx models are studied regarding their accuracy and their sensitivity to model inputs. These models are validated for two Diesel engines on steady-state operating points as well as on transient operations. The semi-physical models accurately predict NOx emissions.

Dilution is a promising way to improve fuel economy of Spark-Ignited (SI) gasoline engines. In this context, influence of innovative ignition systems on the dilution acceptance of a 400cc optical GDI engine has been studied. Several systems were tested and compared to a conventional coil: a dual-coil system and two nanosecond scaled plasma generators. Two operating points were studied: 2.8bar IMEP (net) at 2000rpm and 9bar IMEP (net) at 1200rpm. Two diluents were evaluated: real EGR and air (lean combustion). High-speed imaging at frequency up to 10kHz was performed to visualize both spark and combustion initiation and propagation. Voltage and current were measured to infer the energy deposited in the spark plug gap. The dual-coil DCO™ system and the nanosecond multi-pulse plasma generator at their maximum power showed an ability to extend the dilution range of the engine.

Reduction of CO2 emissions is becoming one of the great challenges for future gasoline engines. Downsizing is one of the most promising strategies to achieve this reduction, though it facilitates occurrence of knocking. Therefore, downsizing has to be associated with knock limiting technologies. The aim of the current research program is to adapt the fuel Research-Octane-Number (RON) injected in the combustion chamber to prevent knock occurrence and keep combustion phasing at optimum. This is achieved by a dual fuel injection strategy, involving a low-RON naphtha-based fuel (Naphtha, RON 71) and a high-RON octane booster (Ethanol, RON107). The ratio of fuel quantity on each injector is adapted to fit the RON requirement as a function of engine operating conditions. Hence, it becomes crucial to understand and predict the mixture preparation, to quantify its spatial and cycle-to-cycle variations and to apprehend the consequences on combustion behavior - knock especially.

This paper presents the evaluation of the impact of Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) quality on the behavior of a controlled SCR system. Proper control of the Selective Catalytic Reduction system is crucial to fulfill NOx emissions standards of modern Diesel engines. Today, the urea concentration of DEF is not considered as a control system input. Moreover, Urea Quality Sensors (UQS) are now available to provide real time information of Diesel Exhaust Fluid quality. The impact of percent urea from 20 to 36% on the NOx emissions of a passenger car 2.2L Diesel engine is calculated using a reference SCR model and a reference SCR control tool in multiple NEDC transient conditions. Several control tunings are tested with different levels of feedback. Ammonia slip levels are also calculated.

The main purpose of this paper will be to investigate if a small snowmobile gasoline Direct Injected (DI) two-stroke engine has the potential to be adapted for two other types of applications: as a range extender (REX) for electric vehicles and for a motorcycle application. For the REX application, the main requested specifications (NVH, lightweight, compactness, minimum production cost and easy maintenance), correspond well to the main features of DI 2-stroke engines. The potential of a modified production engine operating in part load ultra-low NOx Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) to meet the Euro 6 emissions standards on the NEDC cycle has already been demonstrated in a previous paper. In the first part of this new paper, we will investigate which solutions can be used to maintain this potential with even stricter legislations based on Euro 6d, WLTP cycle and Real Driving Emissions (RDE).

Recent work has demonstrated the potential of gasoline-like fuels to reduce NOX and particulates emissions when used in diesel engines. Indeed, fuels highly resistant to auto-ignition provide more time for fuel and air mixing prior to the combustion and therefore a more homogeneous combustion. Nevertheless, major issues still need to be addressed, particularly regarding UHC and CO emissions at low load and particulate/noise combustion trade-off at high load. The purpose of this study is to investigate how an existing modern diesel engine could be operated with low-cetane fuels and define the most appropriate Cetane Number (CN) to reduce engine-out emissions. With this regard, a selection of naphtha and gasoline blends, ranging from CN30/RON 57 to CN35/RON 41 was investigated on a Euro 5, 1.6L four-cylinder engine. Results were compared to the conventional diesel running mode using a minimum NOX level oriented calibration, both in steady state and transient conditions.

Recent work has demonstrated the potential of gasoline-like fuels to reduce NOx and particulate emissions when used in Diesel engines. In this context, straight-run naphtha, a refinery stream directly derived from the atmospheric crude oil distillation process, has been identified as a highly valuable fuel. The current study is one step further toward naphtha-based fuel to power compression ignition engines. The potential of a cetane number 25 fuel (CN25), resulting from a blend of hydro-treated straight-run naphtha CN35 with unleaded non-oxygenated gasoline RON91 was assessed. For this purpose, investigations were conducted on multiple fronts, including experimental activities on an injection test bed, in an optically accessible vessel and in a single cylinder engine. CFD simulations were also developed to provide relevant explanations.

This paper addresses the robustness of an optimal online energy management for diesel hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). Optimal strategy is based on the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS). Optimal torque split between engine and electric motor is found by minimizing fuel consumption and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions. Online adaptation is made in order to ensure battery charge sustainability and good driveability when driving conditions are unknown. The strategy is tested in simulation over one hundred driving cycles representative of real-world conditions. Results obtained with the online strategy are compared with those of an offline optimal strategy (knowing the driving cycle a priori). Even if a slight degradation is noticed in comparison to optimal case, fuel economy and NOx reduction - provided by hybridization - are conserved with the online strategy.

EGR dilution is a promising way to improve fuel economy of Spark-Ignited (SI) gasoline engines. In particular, at high load, it is very efficient in mitigating knock at low speed and to decrease exhaust temperature at high speed so that fuel enrichment can be avoided. The objective of this paper is to better understand the governing mechanisms implied in EGR-diluted SI combustion at high load. For this purpose, measurements were performed on a modern, single-cylinder GDI engine (high tumble value, multi-hole injector, central position). In addition 0-D and 1-D Chemkin simulations (reactors and flames) were used to complete the engine tests so as to gain a better understanding of the physical mechanisms. EGR benefits were confirmed and characterized at 19 bar IMEP: net ISFC could be reduced by 17% at 1200rpm and by 6% at 5000rpm. At low speed, knock mitigation was the main effect, improving the cycle efficiency by a better combustion phasing.

Among the new combustion concepts envisaged to meet future regulations, the Dual Fuel (DF) concept is considered to be an attractive strategy due to its potential to reduce CO2 emissions and engine-out pollutant emissions levels. A small quantity of high-cetane fuel (Diesel) is injected in the combustion chamber in order to ignite a homogeneous mixture of air and a highly volatile fuel (gasoline in our study). The DF concept has been shown to achieve improved engine thermal efficiency and low engine-out NOx and soot emissions. However, the physical mechanisms controlling DF combustion and in particular, determination of the predominant combustion regime(s) are not yet well understood. In this study, numerical simulations (CFD) and optical engine measurements are used to investigate Dual Fuel combustion.

The proposed Euro 7 regulation aims to substantially reduce the NOx emissions to 0.03 g/km, a trend also seen in upcoming China 6b and US EPA regulations. Meeting these stringent requirements necessitates advancements in Urea/Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) aftertreatment systems, with the urea deposit formation being a key challenge to its design. It’s proven that Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) can be an effective tool to predict Urea deposits. Transient wall temperature prediction is crucial in Urea deposit modeling. Additionally, fully understanding the kinetics of urea decomposition and by-products solidification are also critical in predicting the deposit amount and its location. In this study, we introduce (i) a novel film boiling model (IFPEN-BRT model) and (ii) a new urea by-product solidification model in the CONVERGE CFD commercial solver, and validate the results against the recent experiments.

Increasingly restrictive emission standards and CO2 targets drive the need for innovative engine architectures that satisfy the design constraints in terms of performance, emissions and drivability. Downsizing is one major trend for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines. For downsized SI engines, the increased boost levels and compression ratios may lead to a higher propensity of abnormal combustions. Thus increased levels of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) are used in order to limit the appearance of knock and super-knock. The drawback of high EGR rates is the increased tendency for Cycle-to-Cycle Variations (CCV) it engenders. A possible way to reduce CCV could be the generation of an increased in-cylinder turbulence to accelerate the combustion process. To manage all these aspects, 1D simulators are increasingly used. Accordingly, adapted modeling approaches must be developed to deal with all the relevant physics impacting combustion and pollutant emissions formation.

This paper proposes a method to detect an intake manifold leakage for a Diesel engine with a dual loop EGR system. The intake manifold leak has a strong impact on the engine performances by changing the intake manifold burned gas ratio. This fault is analyzed according to the control structure used and also according to the EGR operating mode. The paper proposes a diagnosis algorithm to detect the intake manifold leak in sequential or simultaneous use of the two EGR paths. The sensors considered are the mass air flow meter, the intake manifold pressure sensor, the exhaust equivalence ratio sensor and the differential pressure sensor (across the HP EGR valve). The diagnosis is based on a criteria that uses the redundancy between these sensors and air system models or estimators. The diagnosis threshold depends on the engine operating conditions as well as the sensor or model dispersions.

The recent particle number limits for a spark ignition engine combined with the real driving emissions (RDE) compliance have motivated the need for a better understanding of the effect of the gasoline fuel composition on the particle emissions. More particularly, the fundamental role of high boiling point components and heavy aromatics on particle emissions was highlighted in several literature works. In addition, works driven by the European Renewable Energy Directive are underway in order to explore the feasibility of an increased amount of sustainable Biofuels in Gasoline. Already widely distributed, ethanol is a clear candidate to such an increase. In this context, the present work aims to understand the effect of ethanol addition and aromatics composition on particulate emissions. Vehicle tests were performed over the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) using a Euro 6c model without a Gasoline Particulate Filter (GPF) and a Euro 6d-Temp one equipped with a GPF.

The Diesel engine has now become a vital component of the transport sector, in view of its performance in terms of efficiency and therefore CO2 emissions some 25 % less than a traditional gasoline engine, its main competitor. However, the introduction of more and more stringent regulations on engine emissions (NOx, PM) requires complex after-treatment systems and combustion strategies to decrease pollutant emissions (regeneration strategies, injection strategies, …) with some penalty in fuel consumption. It becomes necessary to find new ways to improve the Diesel efficiency in order to maintain its inherent advantage. In the present work, we are looking for strategies and technologies to reduce Diesel engine fuel consumption. Based on the observation that large Diesel engines have a better efficiency than the smaller ones, a detailed thermodynamic combustion analysis of one Heavy Duty (HD) engine and two Passenger car (PC) engines is performed to understand these differences.