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An investigation of the possibility to extend the 3-dimensional modeling capabilities from conventional diesel to the HCCI combustion mode simulation was carried out. Experimental data was taken from a single cylinder engine operating with early injections for the HCCI and a split-injection (early pilot+main) for the high speed Diesel engine operation. To properly phase the HCCI mode in the experiments, high amounts of cooled EGR and a decreased compression ratio were used. In numerical simulation performed using KIVA3-V code, modified to incorporate the Detailed Chemistry Approach the same conditions were reproduced. Special attention is paid on the analysis of the events leading up to the auto-ignition, which was reasonably well predicted.

48V mild hybrid powertrains are promising technologies for cost-effective compliance with future CO2 emissions standards. Current 48V powertrains with integrated belt starter generators (P0) with downsized engines achieve CO2 emissions of 95 g/km in the NEDC. However, to reach 75 g/km, it may be necessary to combine new 48V powertrain architectures with alternative fuels. Therefore, this paper compares CO2 emissions from different 48V powertrain architectures (P0, P1, P2, P3) with different electric power levels under various driving cycles (NEDC, WLTC, and RTS95). A numerical model of a compact class passenger car with a 48V powertrain was created and experimental fuel consumption maps for engines running on different fuels (gasoline, Diesel, E85, CNG) were used to simulate its CO2 emissions. The simulation results were analysed to determine why specific powertrain combinations were more efficient under certain driving conditions.

The current work investigates a method in 1D modeling of cooling systems including discretized cooling package with non-uniform boundary conditions. In a stacked cooling package the heat transfer through each heat exchanger depends on the mass flows and temperature fields. These are a result of complex three-dimensional phenomena, which take place in the under-hood and are highly non-uniform. A typical approach in 1D simulations is to assume these to be uniform, which reduces the authenticity of the simulation and calls for additional calibrations, normally done with input from test measurements. The presented work employs 3D CFD simulations of complete vehicle in STAR-CCM+ to perform a comprehensive study of mass-flow and thermal distribution over the inlet of the cooling package of a Volvo FM commercial vehicle in several steady-state operating points.

An advanced catalytic exhaust after-treatment system addresses the problem of NOX emissions from heavy-duty diesel trucks, relying on real-time catalyst modelling. The system consists of de-NOX catalysts, a device for injection of a reducing agent (diesel fuel) upstream the catalysts, and computer programmes to control the injection of the reducing agent and to model the engine and catalysts in real time. Experiments with 5 different air-assisted injectors were performed to determine the effect of injector design on the distribution of the injected diesel in the exhaust gas stream. A two-injector set-up was investigated to determine whether system efficiency could be increased without increasing the amount of catalyst or the amount of reducing agent necessary for the desired outcome. The results were verified by performing European standard transient cycle tests as well as stationary tests.

Automotive aerodynamics measurements and simulations now routinely use a moving ground and rotating wheels (MVG&RW), which is more representative of on-road conditions than the fixed ground-fixed wheel (FG&FW) alternative. This can be understood as a combination of three elements: (a) moving ground (MVG), (b) rotating front wheels (RWF) and (c) rotating rear wheels (RWR). The interaction of these elements with the flow field has been explored to date by mainly experimental means. This paper presents a mainly computational (CFD) investigation of the effect of RWF and RWR, in combination with MVG, on the flow field around a saloon vehicle. The influence of MVG&RW is presented both in terms of a combined change from a FG&FW baseline and the incremental effects seen by the addition of each element separately. For this vehicle, noticeable decrease in both drag and rear lift is shown when adding MVG&RW, whereas front lift shows little change.

The three-way-catalyst (TWC) is an essential part of the exhaust aftertreatment system in spark-ignited powertrains, converting nearly all toxic emissions to harmless gasses. The TWC’s conversion efficiency is significantly temperature-dependent, and cold-starts can be the dominating source of emissions for vehicles with frequent start/stops (e.g. hybrid vehicles). In this paper we develop a thermal TWC model and calibrate it with experimental data. Due to the few number of state variables the model is well suited for fast offline simulation as well as subsequent on-line control, for instance using non-linear state-feedback or explicit MPC. Using the model could allow an on-line controller to more optimally adjust the engine ignition timing, the power in an electric catalyst pre-heater, and/or the power split ratio in a hybrid vehicle when the catalyst is not completely hot.

The compression ratio is an important engine design parameter. It determines to a large extend engine properties like the achievable efficiency, the heat losses from the combustion chamber and the exhaust losses. The same properties are affected by insulation of the combustion chamber. It is therefore especially important to know the compression ratio when doing experiments with thermal barrier coatings (TBC). In case of porous TBCs, the standard methods to measure the compression ratio can give wrong results. When measuring the compression ratio by volume, using a liquid, it is uncertain if the liquid fills the total porous volume of the coating. And for a thermodynamic compression ratio estimation, a model for the heat losses is needed, which is not available when doing experiments with insulation. The subject of this paper is the evaluation of an alternative method to assess the compression ratio.

An engine model for use in computer simulation of transient behavior in drivetrain and vehicle systems is presented. Two elements, important for deviation (e.g. turbo-lag) from steady state characteristics, are the inertia of the supercharging unit (turbo shaft) and the fuel injection control system. No extensive combustion calculations are carried out within the model. Instead it uses condensed results from existing combustion models and measurements. The model is semi-empirical. Some of the engine specific properties needed for simulation are (e.g. for a turbocharged diesel): engine data in steady state operation, mappings of compressor and turbine performance, inertia of the engine components condensed to the crankshaft, turbo shaft inertia, displacement, compression ratio and the essentials of the fuel injection control strategy. Input parameters to the computer program based on the model are accelerator pedal position and external torque acting on the flywheel.

A novel concept of combined hydrogen production and power generation system based on the combustion of aluminum in water is explored. The energy conversion system proposed is potentially able to provide four different energy sources, such us pressurized hydrogen, high temperature steam, heat, and work at the crankshaft on demand, as well as to fully comply with the environment sustainability requirements. Once aluminum oxide layer is removed, the pure aluminum can react with water producing alumina and hydrogen while releasing a significant amount of energy. Thus, the hydrogen can be stored for further use and the steam can be employed for energy generation or work production in a supplementary power system. The process is proved to be self-sustained and to provide a remarkable amount of energy available as work or hydrogen.

Heavy-duty vehicles are primarily powered by diesel fuel, emitting CO2 emissions regardless of the exhaust after-treatment system. Contrastingly, a hydrogen engine has the potential to decarbonize the transportation sector as hydrogen is a carbon free, renewable fuel. In this study, a multi-physics 1D simulation tool (GT-Power) is used to model the gas exchange process and performance prediction of a two-stroke hydrogen engine. The aim is to establish a maximum torque-level for a four-stroke hydrogen engine and then utilize different methods for two-stroke modeling to achieve similar torque by optimizing the gas exchange process. A camless engine is used as base, enabling the flexibility to utilize approximately square valve lift profiles. The preliminary step is the GT-Power model validation, which has been done using diesel and hydrogen engines (single-cylinder heavy-duty) experiments at different operating points (871 rpm, 1200 rpm, 1259 rpm, and 1508 rpm).

A model of premixed turbulent combustion is modified for multi-dimensional computations of SI engines. This approach is based on the use of turbulent flame speed in order to suggest a closed balance equation for the mean combustion progress variable. The model includes a single unknown input parameter to be tuned. This model is tested against two sets of experimental data obtained by Bradley et al [17, 18 and 19] and Karpov and Severin [15] in fan-stirred bombs. The model quantitatively predicts the development of the turbulent flame speed, the effects of the initial pressure, temperature, and mixture composition on the turbulent flame speed, and the effects of r.m.s. turbulent velocity and burning mixture composition on the rate of the pressure rise. These results were computed with the same value of the aforementioned unknown input parameter of the model.

Squeak and rattle (S&R) are nonstationary annoying and unwanted noises in the car cabin that result in considerable warranty costs for car manufacturers. Introduction of cars with remarkably lower background noises and the recent emphasis on electrification and autonomous driving further stress the need for producing squeak- and rattle-free cars. Automotive manufacturers use several road disturbances for physical evaluation and verification of S&R. The excitation signals collected from these road profiles are also employed in subsystem shaker rigs and virtual simulations that are gradually replacing physical complete vehicle test and verification. Considering the need for a shorter lead time and the introduction of optimisation loops, it is necessary to have efficient and inclusive excitation load cases for robust S&R evaluation.

Today numerical models are a major part of the diesel engine development. They are applied during several stages of the development process to perform extensive parameter studies and to investigate flow and combustion phenomena in detail. The models are divided by complexity and computational costs since one has to decide what the best choice for the task is. 0D models are suitable for problems with large parameter spaces and multiple operating points, e.g. engine map simulation and parameter sweeps. Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate physical models to improve the predictive capability of these models. This work focuses on turbulence and mixing modeling within a 0D direct injection stochastic reactor model. The model is based on a probability density function approach and incorporates submodels for direct fuel injection, vaporization, heat transfer, turbulent mixing and detailed chemistry.

Existing battery parameter model structures are evaluated by estimating model parameters on real driving data applying standard system identification methods. Models are then evaluated on the test data in terms of goodness of fit and RMSE in voltage predictions. This is different from previous battery model evaluations where a common approach is to train parameters using standardized tests, e.g. hybrid pulse-power capability (HPPC), with predetermined charge and discharge sequences. Equivalent linear circuit models of different complexity were tested and evaluated in order to identify parameter dependencies at different state of charge levels and temperatures. Models are then used to create voltage output given a current, state of charge and temperature. The average accuracy of modelling the DC bus voltage provides a model goodness of fit average higher than 90% for a single RC circuit model.

This paper presents results of a parametric CFD modeling study of a prototype Free Piston Engine (FPE), designed for application in a series hybrid electric vehicle. Since the piston motion is governed by Newton's second law, accounting for the forces acting on the piston/translator, i.e. friction forces, electrical forces, and in-cylinder gas forces, having a high-level control system is vital. The control system changes the electrical force applied during the stroke, thus obtaining the desired compression ratio. Identical control algorithms were implemented in a MATLAB/SIMULINK model to those applied in the prototype engine. The ignition delay and heat release data used in the MATLAB/SIMULINK model are predicted by the KIVA-3V CFD code which incorporates detailed chemical kinetics (305 reactions among 70 species).

To act on global warming, CO2 emissions must be reduced. This will require a reduction in the use of fossil fuels for transportation. Because of the large quantities of fossil fuels used in transportation, sources of renewable fuels other than biomass will have to be explored, such as electrofuels synthesized from CO2 using renewable electricity. Potential electrofuels include methanol and ethanol, which have shown promising results in SI engines. However, their low cetane numbers make these fuels unsuitable for CI engines because of their poor auto-ignition qualities. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the viability of using methanol and ethanol in CI engines at compression ratios of 16.7 and 20 with a pilot-main injection strategy in the PPC/CI regime. Single cylinder engine tests on a heavy duty engine were performed under medium load conditions (1262 rpm and 172 Nm).

The transport sector is experiencing a shift to zero-carbon powertrains driven by aggressive international policies aiming to fight climate change. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) will play the main role in passenger car applications, while diversified solutions are under investigation for the heavy-duty sector. Within this framework, Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs) impact is not negligible and accountable for about 2.5% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Europe. In this regard, few LCV comparative assessments on green powertrains are available in the scientific literature and justified by the fact that several factors and limitations should be considered and addressed to define optimal powertrain solutions for specific use cases. The proposed research study deals with a comparative numerical assessment of different zero-carbon powertrain solutions for LCV. BEVs are compared to hydrogen-based fuel cells (FC) and internal combustion engines (ICE) powered vehicles.

A design method for ultra-dependable control-by-wire systems is presented here. With a top-down approach, exploiting the system's intrinsic redundancy combined with a scalable software redundancy, it is possible to meet dependability requirements cost-effectively. The method starts with the system's functions, which are broken down to the basic elements; task, sensor or actuator. A task graph shows the basic elements interrelationships. Sensor and actuator nodes form a non-redundant hardware architecture. The functional task-graph gives input when allocating software on the node architecture. Tasks are allocated to achieve low inter-node communication and transient fault tolerance using scalable software redundancy. Hardware is added to meet the dependability requirements. Finally, the method describes fault handling and bus scheduling. The proposed method has been used in two cases; a fly-by-wire aircraft and a drive-by-wire car.

During the development of the aerodynamic properties of fore coming road vehicles down scaled models are often used in the initial phase. However, if scale models are to be utilised even further in the aerodynamic development they have to include geometrical representatives of most of the components found in the real vehicle. As the cooling package is one of the biggest single generators of aerodynamic drag the heat exchangers are essential to include in a wind tunnel model. However, due mainly to limitations in manufacturing techniques it is complicated to make a down scaled heat exchanger and instead functional dummy heat exchangers have to be developed for scaled wind tunnel models. In this work a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code has been used to show that it is important that the simplified heat exchanger model has to be of comparable size to that of the full scale unit.

An engine with variable valve timing was operated in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) mode. In two sets of experiments, the fuel was introduced directly into the combustion chamber using a split injection strategy. In the first set, lambda was varied while the fuel flow was constant. The second set consisted of experiments during which the fuel flow was altered and lambda was fixed. The results were evaluated using an engine simulation code with integrated detailed-chemistry. The auto-ignition temperature of the air-fuel mixture was reached when residual mass of the previous combustion cycle was captured using a negative valve overlap and compressed together with the fresh mixture charge inducted. When a pilot fuel amount was introduced in the combustion chamber before piston TDC, during the negative valve overlap, radicals were formed as well as intermediates and combustion took place during this overlap provided the mixture was lean.