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One of the primary reasons that FMVSS 111 currently requires flat rearview mirrors as original equipment on the driver's side of passenger cars is a concern that convex mirrors might reduce safety by causing drivers to overestimate the distances to following vehicles. Several previous studies of the effects of convex rearview mirrors have indicated that they do cause overestimations of distance, but of much lower magnitude than would be expected based on the mirrors' levels of image minification and the resulting visual angles experienced by drivers. Previous studies have investigated mirrors with radiuses of curvature up to 2000 mm. The present empirical study was designed to investigate the effects of mirrors with larger radiuses (up to 8900 mm). Such results are of interest because of the possible use of large radiuses in some aspheric mirror designs, and because of the information they provide about the basic mechanisms by which convex mirrors affect distance perception.

A new realistic motion control algorithm for digital human models is presented in this paper based on the principle of effort minimization. The proposed algorithm is developed through an innovative mathematical model to make the applications more flexible and more global, especially for the visualization of human motions in automotive assembly operations. The central idea of this unique model is to interpret the solution of the homogeneous Lagrange equation for a mannequin as the origin of dynamic motion. Furthermore, a digital human possesses about 42 joints over the main body except the head, fingers and toes, and offers a large room of kinematic redundancy. We have found 14 new 3-D independent motion markers assigned over the human body to constitute a Cartesian coordinate system, under which a minimum-effort based dynamic control scheme is developed using a state-feedback linearization procedure.

With the increasing emphasis on Systems Engineering, there is a need to ensure that Electrical/Electronic (E/E) Systems Endurance Testing of vehicles, in a real world environment, prior to Production Launch, is performed in a manner and at a technological level that is commensurate with the high level of electronics and computers in contemporary vehicles. Additionally, validating the design and performance of individual standalone electronic systems and modules “on the bench” does not guarantee that all the permutations and combinations of real-world hardware, software, and driving conditions are taken into account. Traditional Proving Ground (PG) vehicle testing focuses mainly on powertrain durability testing, with only a simple checklist being used by the PG drivers as a reminder to cycle some of the electrical components such as the power window switches, turn signals, etc.

Vehicle motions can adversely affect the ability of a driver or occupant to quickly and accurately push control buttons located in many advanced vehicle control, navigation and communications systems. A pilot study was conducted using the U.S. Army Tank Automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) Ride Motion Simulator (RMS) to assess the effects of vertical ride motion on the kinematics of reaching. The RMS was programmed to produce 0.5 g and 0.8 g peak-to-peak sinusoidal inputs at the seat-sitter interface over a range of frequencies. Two participants performed seated reaching tasks to locations typical of in-vehicle controls under static conditions and with single-frequency inputs between 0 and 10 Hz. The participants also held terminal reach postures during 0.5 to 32 Hz sine sweeps. Reach kinematics were recorded using a 10-camera VICON motion capture system. The effects of vertical ride motion on movement time, accuracy, and subjective responses were assessed.

Current automotive design practices related to driver visibility are based on static laboratory studies of mostly straight ahead viewing that were conducted by Meldrum and others beginning in 1962. These individual studies have never been replicated either in the lab or in actual driving situations to determine the validity of their procedures. After a thorough review of the literature related to driver eye location and a statistical analysis of previous static eye location data, an experimental design is proposed to determine dynamic eye location distribution characteristics. This design will provide information on: (a) the relationship of static anthropometric measurements to dynamic eye location; (b) the difference between dynamic on-the-road eye location versus static in-the-lab eye location distributions: (c) the effect of different types of vehicle seating package parameters on eye location; and, (d) a validation of previous static eye location studies.

In recent years, automotive occupant restraint system development has gained impetus, stimulated, in part, by new federal standards. But in the resolution of the basic question of whether automobiles should be equipped with restraints, many new problems have arisen, including, ironically, some brought on by regulation. While there is little doubt that restraint systems can provide the single most important contribution to occupant protection, such restraint systems remain useless unless adequately installed and properly worn. Current problems involve not only what concepts provide most promise for future restraint systems, but diverse and often conflicting industry and governmental opinion about what are the best interests of the motoring public. Restraints are still not provided in buses, trucks, and utility vehicles. In addition, the problems of child and infant restraints and restraints for retrofit in older vehicles remain unresolved.

Five different nonplanar mirrors were evaluated as driver-side rearview mirrors in a field test using Ford employees. Two were spherical convex (differing in radius of curvature), and three were aspheric (differing primarily in the proportion of their surfaces over which radius of curvature was variable). Each participant drove for four weeks with one of the nonplanar mirrors. At three times during the test the participants filled out questionnaires concerning their experience with the mirrors. Driver preferences for the experimental mirrors increased moderately between surveys at one week and at four weeks. At four weeks, all five nonplanar mirrors were preferred to the standard flat mirror by at least a small amount. For each of the five mirror designs there was a large range of opinion. Most notably, a small number of people strongly disliked the aspheric design that involved the largest variable-radius area.

The Hybrid III family of dummies is used to estimate the response of an occupant during a crash. One recent area of interest is the response of the neck during air bag loading. The biomechanical response of the Hybrid III dummy's neck was based on inertial loading during crash events, when the dummy is restrained by a seat belt and/or seat back. Contact loading resulting from an air bag was not considered when the Hybrid III dummy was designed. This paper considers the effect of air bag loading on the 5th percentile female Hybrid III dummies. The response of the neck is presented in comparison to currently accepted biomechanical corridors. The Hybrid III dummy neck was designed with primary emphasis on appropriate flexion and extension responses using the corridors proposed by Mertz and Patrick. They formulated the mechanical performance requirements of the neck as the relationship between the moment at the occipital condyles and the rotation of the head relative to the torso.

The evaluation of maintenance tasks is increasingly important in the design and redesign of many industrial operations including vehicles. The weight of subsystems can be extreme and often tools are developed to abate the ergonomic risks commonly associated with such tasks, while others are unfortunately overlooked. We evaluated a member of the family of medium-sized tactical vehicles (FMTV) and chose the battery handling from a list of previously addressed concerns regarding the vehicle. Particularly in larger vehicles, similar to those analyzed in this paper, batteries may exceed 35 kg (77 lbs). The motions required to remove these batteries were simulated using motion prediction modules from the Human Motion Simulation (HUMOSIM) laboratory at the University of Michigan. These motions were visualized in UGS PLM Solutions' Jack™ and analyzed with the embedded 3-D Static Strength Prediction program.

The anatomy of the human respiratory system is detailed. The function of the entire system is shown from inspiration to expiration. Equations are given to illustrate flow-pressure relationships in the airways. Specifics of gas transfer are shown. All these details of physiology and function are necessary for an understanding of the effects of air pollution upon the human respiratory system.

The physiology of carbon monoxide is discussed in the human respiratory system. The details of the relationship of carbon monoxide and hemoglobin are outlined, and the effects of specific concentrations of CO are shown. Acute and chronic exposures to CO create certain effects on the various bodily systems, and these are described in detail.

Aircraft used for business (executive corporate transportation or personal business) and utility purposes now represent about one-third of the total United States aircraft inventory. Data from accident investigation of business aircraft involved in survivable accidents indicate serious injuries and fatality to the occupants occur most frequently as a result of the unprotected head and neck or chest flailing in contact with aircraft controls, instrument panel, or structure. Improvement of current aircraft to provide increased occupant safety and survival during crash impacts is both necessary and feasible. Design considerations include folding seat back locks to prevent collapse, increased seat tie-down to structure, instrument panels and glare shields designed to absorb energy through structural design and padding, stronger seat structure, lateral protection, design and packaging of knobs and projections to minimize injury in contact, and installation of upper torso restraint.

Side window clarity and its effect on side mirror visibility plays a major role in driver comfort. Driving in inclement weather conditions such as rain can be stressful, and having optimal visibility under these conditions is ideal. However, extreme conditions can overwhelm exterior water management devices, resulting in rivulets of water flowing over the a-pillar and onto the vehicle’s side glass. Once on the side glass, these rivulets and the pooling of water they feed, can significantly impair the driver’s ability to see the side mirror and to see outwardly when in situations such as changing lanes. Designing exterior water management features of a vehicle is a challenging exercise, as traditionally, physical testing methods first require a full-scale vehicle for evaluations to be possible. Additionally, common water management devices such as grooves and channels often have undesirable aesthetic, drag, and wind noise implications.

A test series using eight unembalmed cadavers was conducted to investigate factors affecting the creation of cervical spine damage from impact to the crown of the head. The crown impact was accomplished by a free-fall drop of the test subject onto a load plate. The load plate striking surface was covered with padding to vary the contact force time characteristics. The orientations of the head, cervical spine, and torso were adjusted relative to a laboratory coordinate system to investigate the effects of head and spinal configuration on the damage patterns. Load and acceleration data are presented as a function of time and as a function of frequency in the form of mechanical impedance.

This paper contains a review of methods for deriving risk curves from biomechanical data obtained from impact experiments on human surrogates. It covers many of the problems and pitfalls of obtaining realistic human risk curves from impact experiments. The strength and weakness of both parametric and non-parametric methods are evaluated. The limitations of standard analysis of censored impact test data are presented. Methods are given for determining risk curves from both doubly censored data and data obtained from impacts to body regions in which there are more than one mechanism of injury. A detailed set of examples is presented in which different experimental data are analyzed using the Consistent Threshold method and the logistic approach. Finally risk curves for published data are presented for the femur, head, thorax, and neck.

The crush strength of aluminum 5052-H38 honeycomb materials under combined compressive and shear loads are investigated here. The experimental results indicate that both the peak and crush strengths under combined compressive and shear loads are lower than those under pure compressive loads. A yield function is suggested for honeycomb materials under the combined loads based on a phenomenological plasticity theory. The microscopic crush mechanism under the combined loads is also investigated. A microscopic crush model based on the experimental observations is developed. The crush model includes the assumptions of the asymmetric location of horizontal plastic hinge line and the ruptures of aluminum cell walls so that the kinematic requirement can be satisfied. In the calculation of the crush strength, two correction factors due to non-associated plastic flow and different rupture modes are considered.

The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards currently require driver-side rearview mirrors to be flat. For rearview mirrors of typical size, this requirement normally results in a blind zone on the driver side that is large enough to conceal an average size passenger car. In recent years a number of studies have suggested that nonplanar rearview mirrors may be an effective solution to this problem. This paper reviews the evidence on possible effectiveness of nonplanar mirrors, assesses the strength of that evidence, and makes tentative recommendations. The main conclusion is that the use of nonplanar mirrors would probably result in a net gain in safety, but that the effectiveness of the mirrors is likely to depend on details of how they are implemented. Issues that should be resolved by additional research (some of which is already underway) are: (1) How would U.S. drivers respond to a mixed fleet of vehicles, some of which had flat mirrors and some of which had nonplanar mirrors?

Effective computer-aided design of engineering systems requires comprehensive computer-application software that conveniently adapts to the particular engineering design considered. This paper discusses the theoretical background and initial experience with a program intended for computer-aided design of machine-like mechanical systems, and outlines the use of a time-shared graphic terminal for schematic display of program output. The program is applicable to three types of mechanical systems: linear and nonlinear unconstrained dynamic systems, kinematic systems (that is, constrained systems), and multifreedom, constrained systems.

This paper describes the methodology used to design and perform a CFD analysis of a Chevrolet Impala SS Funny Car body. This body was designed for the purpose of making it available for teams to race it in the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) drag racing series beginning with the 2007 race season. Several challenges were presented in this project: (1) This was the first time a General Motors drag racing body for use in professional classes (Funny Car or otherwise) was ever designed in CAD. (2) The body was originally designed as a 2007 Chevrolet Monte Carlo. After the tooling was completed, changes in Chevrolet’s product lineup required that the body be changed to a 2007 Impala SS. (3) Budget constraints precluded CFD analysis until after the bodies were already being manufactured. There were several teams that raced the new body during the 2007 race season. One of these teams won the Funny Car Driver’s Championship.

In this study, an angle-time-based motion modification method was developed. This method allows the use of existing motion data by modifying them to fit new scenarios given as new initial and final posture constraints. The motion modification method can generalize an existing motion data and derive, within a portion of space, a family of motions retaining the angular velocity characteristics of the original motion. It was found that the proposed method is capable of predicting realistic human motions with various new initial and final posture constraints in a robust manner. We expect that this motion modification method provides a way of using existing motion data more flexibly and economically.