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A technique for evaluating high temperature oxidation and corrosion tendencies of automotive crankcase lubricants is described. The technique utilizes a versatile bench apparatus which, with a minimum of modification, can be used for either evaluating thermal oxidation stability of gear lubricants or oxidation-corrosion tendencies of automotive crankcase lubricants. The apparatus is relatively compact and requires a minimal lubricant sample. Design of the apparatus permits close control of all operating parameters and provides satisfactory test data repeatability. Retainable copper-lead test bearings are used as the indicator in predicting a pass or fail of fully formulated crankcase lubricants as in the case of the CRC L-38-559 (Federal Test Method 3405) technique. Engine and bench test data are compared to illustrate the capabilities of this new bench technique.

The problem associated with laboratory evaluation of muffler acoustical characteristics are complicated both by the acoustical considerations involved in obtaining an adequate noise source and by the ambiguities involved in defining what constitutes quality in a muffler built for general application. In order to quantitatively define the characteristics of quality mufflers, an extensive series of field tests were conducted on a variety of sizes and types of mufflers in conjunction with four engine configurations. Work then turned to the development of a wide band siren noise source and acoustical test system which would simulate the high impedance character of an engine exhaust noise source, and in addition generate the necessary intensity and spectral characteristics required to obtain test data over the range of noise conditions encountered in the field.

The California Air Resources Board (CARB)-funded Stage 3 Heavy-Duty Low NOX program focusses on evaluating different engine and after-treatment technologies to achieve 0.02g/bhp-hr of NOX emission over certification cycles. This paper highlights the controls architecture of the engine and after-treatment systems and discusses the effects of various strategies implemented and tested in an engine test cell over various heavy-duty drive cycles. A Cylinder De-Activation (CDA) system enabled engine was integrated with an advanced after-treatment controller and system package. Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) had implemented a model-based controller for the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system in the CARB Stage 1 Low-NOX program. The chemical kinetics for the model-based controller were further tuned and implemented in order to accurately represent the reactions for the catalysts used in this program.

More stringent emission legislation has been a driver for changes in the design of Heavy Duty Diesel engines since the 1980s. Optimization of the combustion processes has lead to significant reductions of exhaust emission levels over the years. However, in the year 2002, diesel engines in the USA will have to meet an even more stringent set of emission requirements. Expectations are that this will force most engine builders to incorporate Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). Several studies of the impact of EGR on lubricant degradation have shown increased levels of contamination with soot particles and acidic components. Both of these could lead to changes in lubricant requirements. The industry is developing a new specification for diesel engine lubricants, PC-9, using test procedures incorporating engines with EGR.

Measurement of emissions from small utility engines has usually been accomplished using steady-state raw emissions procedures such as SAE Recommended Practice J1088. While raw exhaust measurements have the advantage of producing modal exhaust gas concentration data for design feedback; they are laborious, may influence both engine performance and the emissions themselves, and have no provision for concurrent particulate measurements. It is time to consider a full-dilution procedure similar in principle to automotive and heavy-duty on-highway emission measurement practice, leading to improvements in many of the areas noted above, and generally to much higher confidence in data obtained. When certification and audit of small engine emissions become a reality, a brief dilute exhaust procedure generating only the necessary data will be a tremendous advantage to both manufacturers and regulatory agencies.

The Lean NOx Trap (LNT) is a technology that could be used to reduce oxides of nitrogen from heavy-duty diesel engines to meet emissions standards (US 2010 and EURO 4/5/6). This paper describes a case-study for evaluating the feasibility of an LNT. LNTs suffer from sulfur poisoning and thermal aging limitations. Catalyst formulations allow reversal of sulfur poisoning through desulfation procedures. A case study was performed using a 7-liter diesel engine equipped with VGT, common rail fuel injection system, cooled EGR, oxidation catalyst and DPF. The LNT was positioned after the particulate filter. Gaseous raw emissions were measured from engine and various stages of aftertreatment. A Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analyzer was used to characterize Ammonia and SO₂. Temperatures were measured in the substrate. Fast response NOx sensor allowed for continuous monitoring of the NOx in the LNT. A wide-range O₂ sensor was also utilized to measure equivalence ratio.

The principles of the magnetic-perturbation method of flaw detection and the Barkhausen noise residual stress measurement method are briefly reviewed. It is suggested that they provide very powerful tools for assuring improved ball bearing performance. The methods are applied for the evaluation of ball bearing races. Typical experimental results are presented along with metallurgical sectioning correlation.

It has been shown within the catalyst industry that the emission performance with higher cell density technology and therefore with higher specific geometric area is improved. The focus of this study was to compare the overall performance of high cell density catalysts, up to 1600cpsi, using a MY 2001 production vehicle with a 4.7ltr.V8 engine. The substrates were configured to be on the edge of the design capability. The goal was to develop cost optimized systems with similar emission and back pressure performance, which meet physical and production requirements. This paper will present the results of a preliminary computer simulation study and the final emission testing of a production vehicle. For the pre-evaluation a numerical simulation model was used to compare the light-off performance of different substrate designs in the cold start portion of the FTP test cycle.

The equipment for collecting dilute exhaust samples involves the use of bag materials (i.e., Tedlar®) that emit hydrocarbons that contaminate samples. This study identifies a list of materials and treatments to produce bags that reduce contamination. Based on the average emission rates, baked Tedlar®, Capran® treated with alumina deposition, supercritical CO2 extracted Kynar® and supercritical CO2 extracted Teflon NXT are capable of achieving the target hydrocarbon emission rate of less than 15 ppbC per 30 minutes. CO2 permeation tests were also performed. Tedlar, Capran, Kynar and Teflon NXT showed comparable average permeation rates. Based on the criteria of HC emission performance, changes in measured CO2 concentration, ease of sealing, and ease of surface treatment, none of the four materials could be distinguished from one another.

Recent legislation, including the California Clean Air Act of 1988 and the Federal Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990, includes off-road engines, equipment, and vehicles as targets for new exhaust emissions regulations. The Santa Barbara County Air Pollution Control District in cooperation with EXXON USA is conducting a major Low NOx Demonstration Program including mobile sources, construction equipment, and offshore equipment. As a part of this program, an existing backhoe has been retrofitted with a low NOx engine and demonstrated in the field. This paper discusses the work performed to allow Case model 580 backhoes to be retrofitted with Cummins 4BTAA3.9 on-highway turbocharged diesel engines. A standard production conversion kit can be used to mount the new engines in place of the older existing JI Case engines in some models while other newer models already have 4B3.9 engines. In addition, an air-to-air aftercooler and associated plumbing was designed and installed.

An increasing number of passenger vehicle exhaust systems incorporate catalytic converters that are “close-coupled” to the exhaust manifold to further reduce the quantity of cold-start emissions and increase overall catalyst conversion efficiencies. In general, close-coupled catalytic converters are not necessarily subjected to higher inlet exhaust temperatures than conventional underbody catalytic converters. To establish a foundation of on-vehicle temperature data, several passenger vehicles with close-coupled catalytic converters were studied while operating on a chassis dynamometer. Converter temperatures were measured over a variety of vehicle test conditions, including accelerations and extended steady-state speeds for several throttle positions, at both zero- and four-percent simulated road grades.

In order to further reduce vehicle cold-start emissions, the use of catalytic converters that are “close-coupled” to the exhaust manifold is increasing. To understand the vibrational environment of close-coupled and underbody converters, a laboratory study was conducted on several passenger vehicles. Catalytic converter vibration spectra were measured on a chassis dynamometer with the vehicle operating over a variety of test conditions. Vehicle operating conditions included hard accelerations and extended steady-state speeds at distinct throttle positions over zero-percent and four-percent simulated road grades.

This paper describes the findings of a laboratory effort to demonstrate improved automotive exhaust emission control with a cold-start hydrocarbon collection system. The emission control strategy developed in this study incorporated a zeolite molecular sieve in the exhaust system to collect cold-start hydrocarbons for subsequent release to an active catalytic converter. A prototype emission control system was designed and tested on a gasoline-fueled vehicle. Continuous raw exhaust emission measurements upstream and downstream of the zeolite molecular sieve revealed collection, storage, and release of cold-start hydrocarbons. Federal Test Procedure (FTP) emission results show a 35 percent reduction in hydrocarbons emitted during the cold-transient segment (Bag 1) due to adsorption by the zeolite.

Comparative exhaust emission tests were performed with five diesel fuels, namely a Sasol Fischer-Tropsch diesel, a fuel meeting the CARB diesel fuel specification, a fuel meeting the US 2-D diesel fuel specification, and two blends of the Fischer-Tropsch diesel and the 2-D diesel. Hot-start and cold-start heavy-duty transient emission tests were performed using a 1999 model year DDC series 60 engine. Regulated exhaust emissions with the Fischer-Tropsch diesel were significantly lower than with the 2-D and CARB diesel fuels, in both the hot-start and cold-start tests. When compared with test results obtained previously with a 1991 engine, it was found that the reduction in NOX with the Fischer-Tropsch fuel was smaller in the 1999 engine, while the reduction in PM was greater.

This study compared four different candidate fuels which were prepared by blending different components with a typical No. 2 diesel. Two fuels were blended with a synthetic diesel prepared from natural gas condensate, and all candidate fuels were splash blended with a proprietary additive package from International Fuel Technology Inc. (IFT). These fuels were then compared to the No. 2 diesel and to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) equivalent diesel fuel. The comparisons included fuel properties such as sulfur content, aromatics, cetane, lubricity, distillation; emissions; and fuel consumption. Emission testing was conducted on a 1991 Detroit Diesel Series 60. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) transient cycle was utilized for emissions, fuel characterization was performed according to ASTM standards, and fuel consumption was calculated by the carbon balance method.

Government agencies like EPA play an important role through regulation to reduce emissions and fuel consumption and to drive technological developments to reduce the environmental impact of burning petroleum fuels. Emissions testing and control is one of the leading and growing fields in the development of modern vehicles. Recently, Cummins Emissions Solutions (CES) and Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) worked jointly in order to achieve a method to conduct emissions testing efficiently and effectively. The collaborative work between the two organizations led to the usage of FOCAS HGTR™ (a diesel-based burner test rig at SwRI) to simulate the exhaust conditions generated by a 2010 ISX Cummins production engine operating over an EPA standard Ramped Modal Cycle Supplemental Emissions Test (RMC SET) cycle.

Alternative fuels are being evaluated in automotive applications in both commercial and government fleets in an effort to reduce emissions and United States dependence on diesel fuel. Vehicles and equipment have been operated using 100 percent biodiesel and various blends of biodiesel and diesel fuel in a variety of applications, including farming equipment and transit buses. This government study investigates the compatibility of four base fuels and six blends with elastomer and metallic components commonly found in fuel systems. The physical properties of the elastomers were measured according to American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) D 471, “Standard Test Method for Rubber Property-Effect of Liquids,” and ASTM D 412, “Standard Test Methods for Rubber Properties in Tension.” These evaluations were performed at 51.7°C for 0, 22, 70, and 694 hours. Tensile strength, hardness, swell, and elongation were determined for all specimens.

For transmission suppliers tooled primarily for producing manual transmissions, retrofitting a manual transmission with actuators and a controller is business viable. It offers a low cost convenience for the consumer without losing fuel economy when compared to torque converter type automatics. For heavy duty truck fleets even the estimated 3% gain in fuel economy that the Automated Manual Transmission (AMT) offers over the manual transmission can result in lower operational costs. This paper provides a case study using a light duty transmission retrofitted with electric actuation for gears and the clutch. A high level description of the control algorithms and hardware is included. Clutch control is the most significant component of the AMT controller and it is addressed in detail during operations such as vehicle launch from rest, launch from coast and launch on grades.

Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) converted two small air-cooled, gasoline engines to operate on LPG (sometimes called propane since propane is LPG's major constituent). Typical two- and four-cycle engines were chosen for this investigation. The two-cycle engine used was a McCulloch string trimmer engine with 28 cc displacement. The four-cycle engine used was an L-head, Tecumseh TVS90 with 148 cc displacement. These are typical of engines found on lower cost lawn mowers and string trimmers. The engines were baseline tested on gasoline, converted to LPG, and tested to determine equivalence ratios at which the engines could be operated without exceeding manufacturers' recommended spark plug seat or exhaust temperatures. Engine startability and throttle response was maintained with the LPG conversion. The emissions of the four-cycle engine were measured following the CARB 6-mode emissions test procedure.

In an attempt to establish correlation between off-road performance of full-size vehicles and scale models in clay type soils by use of a similitude analysis, the U. S. Army Transportation Research Command (TRECOM) conducted a series of vehicle performance tests in three types of cohesive soils for a complete range of moisture content levels. This investigation covered a study of all soil parameters that could affect vehicle performance in low, medium, and high cohesion disaggregated soils, including the effects of vehicle weight, tire design, speed, slip, and soil characteristics on drawbar pull and tire sinkage. The results obtained and experience in testing techniques accumulated from this project are described.