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An adaptive air fuel ratio (AFR) control system has been implemented on a modern high performance fuel injected four cylinder engine. A pressure transducer in the combustion chamber is used to measure the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) for efficiency and cyclic variability feedback. The controller tunes the relative AFR, λ, in the range λ = 1 to λ = 1.5, to maximise the thermal efficiency in real time. The system adaptively accounts for changes in operating conditions such as ambient temperatures and user demands. The IMEP feedback allows the closed loop control system to update every few revolutions with short tune in times in the order of seconds. Open and closed loop test results are presented, demonstrating the incremental efficiency gains over fixed or mapped AFR control. The system continually adjusts the fuelling for maximum efficiency given its constraints and provides a basis for optimisation of future lean burn technologies.

This paper presents a combined experimental and numerical method for analysing energy flows within a spark ignition engine. Engine dynamometer data is combined with physical models of in-cylinder convection and the engine's thermal impedances, allowing closure of the First Law of Thermodynamics over the entire engine system. In contrast to almost all previous works, the coolant and metal temperatures are not assumed constant, but rather are outputs from this approach. This method is therefore expected to be most useful for lean burn engines, whose temperatures should depart most from normal experience. As an example of this method, the effects of normalised air-fuel ratio (λ), compression ratio and combustion chamber geometry are examined using a hydrogen-fueled engine operating from λ = 1.5 to λ = 6. This shows large variations in the in-cylinder wall temperatures and heat transfer with respect to λ.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is an attractive, alternative fuel for spark-ignited (SI), internal combustion (IC) engines due to its high octane rating, and low energy-specific CO2 emissions compared with gasoline. Directly-injected (DI) CNG in SI engines has the potential to dramatically decrease vehicles’ carbon emissions; however, optimization of DI CNG fueling systems requires a thorough understanding of the behavior of CNG jets in an engine environment. This paper therefore presents an experimental and modeling study of DI gaseous jets, using methane as a surrogate for CNG. Experiments are conducted in a non-reacting, constant volume chamber (CVC) using prototype injector hardware at conditions relevant to modern DI engines. The schlieren imaging technique is employed to investigate how the extent of methane jets is impacted by changing thermodynamic conditions in the fuel rail and chamber.

This paper compares the performance of a small two cylinder, 430 cm3 engine which has been tested in a variety of normally aspirated (NA) and forced induction modes on 98-RON pump gasoline. These modes are defined by variations in the induction system and associated compression ratio (CR) alterations needed to avoid knock and maximize volumetric efficiency (ηVOL). These modes included: (A) NA with carburetion (B) NA with port fuel injection (PFI) (C) Mildly Supercharged (SC) with PFI (D) Highly Turbocharged (TC) with PFI The results have significant relevance in defining the limitations for small downsized spark ignition (SI) engines, with power increases needed via intake boosting to compensate for the reduced swept volume. Performance is compared in the varying modes with comparisons of brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), brake power, ηVOL, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake thermal efficiency (ηTH).

The gaseous fuels, hydrogen and methane, are fuels that will likely be in adequate supply when crude oil sourced liquid fuels are scarce. These gases may he used directly in engines, which may need modification or could be used as feed stocks for liquid fuel synthesis. The energy efficiency of using methane and hydrogen in dedicated engines is compared with liquid fuelled engines. Hydrogen gives 6 3% improved efficiency and Methane 39% in city driving and Methane gives slightly improved power but Hydrogen fuel causes a 25% power loss compared with petrol. The storage of Methane in compressed or liquid form and Hydrogen in metal hydrides are compared. The overall efficiency of these gaseous fuel systems are compared, and fuel synthesis is included.

This paper describes the design and development of an engine with constant power for SAE's student Formula race-car competition, allowing the avoidance of gear shifting for much of the Autocross event. To achieve constant power for over 50% of the speed range, turbocharging was adopted with a boost pressure ratio of 2.8 at mid-range speeds and applied to an engine capacity of 430 cc. This engine was specifically designed and configured for the purpose, being a twin cylinder in-line arrangement with double overhead camshafts. Most of the engine components were specially cast or machined from billets. The capacity was selected to minimise frictional losses and thus increase delivered power along with dry sump lubrication and a three speed gear box. The engine manifolds and plenums were designed using a CAE application and proved to be well suited to the task resulting in excellent agreement between predicted and actual performance.

Direct Injection (DI) is believed to be one of the key strategies for maximizing the thermal efficiency of Spark Ignition (SI) engines and meet the ever-tightening emissions regulations. This paper explores the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) liquid phase fuel in a 1.5 liter SI four cylinder gasoline engine with double over head camshafts, four valves per cylinder, and centrally located DI injector. The DI injector is a high pressure, fast actuating injector enabling precise multiple injections of the finely atomized fuel sprays. With DI technology, the injection timing can be set to avoid fuel bypassing the engine during valve overlap into the exhaust system prior to combustion. The fuel vaporization associated with DI reduces combustion chamber and charge temperatures, thereby reducing the tendency for knocking. Fuel atomization quality supports an efficient combustion process.

Non-reacting spray behaviors of the Engine Combustion Network “Spray G” gasoline fuel injector were investigated at flash and non-flash boiling conditions in an optically accessible single cylinder engine and a constant volume spray chamber. High-speed Mie-scattering imaging was used to determine transient liquid-phase spray penetration distances and observe general spray behaviors. The standardized “G2” and “G3” test conditions recommended by the Engine Combustion Network were matched in this work and the fuel was pure iso-octane. Results from the constant volume chamber represented the zero (stationary piston) engine speed condition and single cylinder engine speeds ranged from 300 to 2,000 RPM. As expected, the present results indicated the general spray behaviors differed significantly between the spray chamber and engine. The differences must be thoughtfully considered when applying spray chamber results to guide spray model development for engine applications.

This paper presents experimental and computational results obtained on an in line, six cylinder, naturally aspirated, gasoline engine. Steady state measurements were first collected for a wide range of cam and spark timings versus throttle position and engine speed at part and full load. Simulations were performed by using an engine thermo-fluid model. The model was validated with measured steady state air and fuel flow rates and indicated and brake mean effective pressures. The model provides satisfactory accuracy and demonstrates the ability of the approach to produce fairly accurate steady state maps of BMEP and BSFC. However, results show that three major areas still need development especially at low loads, namely combustion, heat transfer and friction modeling, impacting respectively on IMEP and FMEP computations. Satisfactory measurement of small IMEP and derivation of FMEP at low loads is also a major issue.

The transient behaviour of the fuel spray from an air assisted fuel injector has been investigated both numerically and experimentally in a Constant Volume Chamber (CVC) and an optical engine. This two phase injector is difficult to analyse numerically and experimentally because of the strong coupling between the gas and liquid phases. The gas driven atomization of liquid fuel involves liquid film formation, separation and break up and also liquid droplet coalescence, break up, splashing, bouncing, evaporation and collision. Furthermore, the liquid phase is the dominant phase in many regions within the injector. Experimental results are obtained by using Mie scattering, Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) and Laser Sheet Drop sizing (LSD) techniques. Computational results are obtained by using a mixed Lagrangian/Eulerian approach in a commercial Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) code.

The HAJI (Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition) system for S.I. engines utilises direct injection of small amounts of hydrogen to enhance the combustion of a variety of automotive fuels. Although not the primary purpose of HAJI, the hardware, once in place, also lends itself to the possibility of hydrogen-only running during a cold start. Cold-start simulations have been performed using a single cylinder engine. Results are presented, comparing hydrogen-only tests with standard HAJI operation and normal spark-ignition operation. HAJI and spark ignition tests were carried out with gasoline as the main-chamber fuel. Emission levels and combustion stability characteristics were recorded as the engine warmed up. The differences between the various fueling/ignition scenarios are presented and the implications for possible automotive applications are discussed in light of current and proposed emissions legislation.

This paper describes the mechanical component design, lubrication, tuning and control aspects of a restricted, odd fire, highly turbocharged (TC) engine for Formula SAE competition. The engine was specifically designed and configured for the purpose, being a twin cylinder inline arrangement with double overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. Most of the engine components were specially cast or machined from billets. A detailed theoretical analysis was completed to determine engine specifications and operating conditions. Results from the analysis indicated a new engine design was necessary to sustain highly TC operation. Dry sump lubrication was implemented after initial oil surge problems were found with the wet sump system during vehicle testing. The design and development of the system is outlined, together with brake performance effects for the varying systems.

Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition (HAJI) is a novel method of maintaining combustion stability during ultra-lean operation of conventional, homogeneously charged, SI engines. When operating with HAJI above λ=2, CO and NOx emissions fall to low levels while HC emissions rise to approximately double their stoichiometric value. HC emissions were investigated by operating a HAJI equipped, optically accessible, four-valve single cylinder engine at 600 r/min, wide open throttle (WOT), and from λ=1 to λ=2.4. A fast flame ionisation detector was used to collect real time hydrocarbon concentration data from behind one of the exhaust valves, inside the HAJI pre-chamber, and from near the combustion chamber wall. Flame images were also obtained. Exhaust port sampling shows that the HC concentration during blowdown and early exhaust is increased, but the concentration at the end of exhaust is decreased.

The challenge of tough fuel consumption reduction targets and near zero NOx emission standards can be met by optimization of the full range of engine design variables. Here these are explored through an engine simulation model and the application of an optimizing algorithm that can work in discontinuous data space. The combustion model has main features that include flame propagation, the effects of turbulence, chamber shape interaction and NOx formation. Two engine configurations are used to illustrate the application of the model and optimizer. Both allow the adoption of extra lean burn possible with LPG as fuel and EGR through an external route or cam phasing. In the first the compression ratio and cam profiles are fixed, in the second study they are also optimized.

A high speed research engine has optical access to over 80% of the combustion chamber volume through a piston with a quartz window. The engine has been used to study the effect of swirl on the spark-ignited combustion by means of high speed photography and analysis of combustion-time data. Results over the speed, swirl and mixture strength range show the flame travel derived from the pressure to agree with the measured flame travel to within 3% on average. Turbulent to laminar flame speed ratios as high as 45 occur under high swirl conditions. However it was not possible to find a predictive model which could explain the turbulent flame speed in terms of engine design variables.

The focus of internal combustion (IC) engine research is the improvement of fuel economy and the reduction of the tailpipe emissions of CO2 and other regulated pollutants. Promising solutions to this challenge include the use of both direct-injection (DI) and alternative fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This study uses Mie-scattering and schlieren imaging to resolve the liquid and vapor phases of propane and iso-octane, which serve as surrogates for LPG and gasoline respectively. These fuels are imaged in a constant volume chamber at conditions that are relevant to both naturally aspirated and boosted, gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines. It is observed that propane and iso-octane have different spray behaviors across these conditions. Iso-octane is subject to conventional spray breakup and evaporation in nearly all cases, while propane is heavily flash-boiling throughout the GDI operating map.

There are two parts to achieving the optimization reported here. The development of an engine simulation model and an optimization algorithm. The engine performance is evaluated using a quasi-dimensional engine combustion model with sub models to incorporate friction, heat losses and abnormal combustion, that is knocking. After extensive search and development a new Particle Swarm Optimizer (PSO), has been developed. Optimization includes, for the first time, the search of discontinuous design variables. The input variables considered for this investigation are manifold air pressure, air-fuel ratio, spark timing, compression ratio, valve timing events including valve open duration, maximum valve lift and engine speed. This enables the identification of the maximum thermal efficiency at a given power output at any engine operating speed.

HAJI (Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition) is an advanced combustion initiation system for otherwise standard S.I engines. It utilises the fluid mechanics of a turbulent, chemically active jet, combined with the reliability of spark igniting rich hydrogen mixtures. The result is an extremely robust ignition system, capable of developing power from an engine charged with air-fuel mixtures as lean as λ = 5. Experiments have been performed using a single cylinder engine operating on gasoline in the speed range of 600-1800 r/min. Data are presented in the form of maps which describe fuel efficiency, combustion stability and emissions with respect to load, speed, air-fuel ratio and throttle. The results are incorporated into a model of a known engine and vehicle and this is used to estimate performance over the Federal drive-cycle.

HAJI, or Hydrogen Assisted Jet Ignition, is an ignition system which uses a hot gaseous jet to initiate and stabilise combustion. HAJI allows a dramatic reduction of cyclic variability, and an extension of the lean limit of the engine to lambda 5. Improvements in cyclic variability lead to increased power output, reduced noise, wear on components and emissions. The ability to operate ultra lean gives 25% improvements in efficiency and extremely low emissions, particularly of NOx. Combustion analysis based on the fractal dimensions of the propagating flame fronts, obtained from optical flame data, support the hypothesis of enhancement of flame speeds through the presence of active chemical species. However, the relative contributions of turbulence and active species to the mechanisms of combustion enhancement realised with HAJI are not well defined. HAJI ignition has also been simulated with a comprehensive three dimensional combustion code, KIVA3.

A new method of solution is presented for the equations governing unsteady flow field during compression and combustion in a spark ignition. The Lagrangian approach, an application of a vortex method to the three-dimensional solution of the continuity and conservation equations, avoids the need for a turbulence model and wall laws close to the surfaces. Vorticity is introduced as blobs close to the wall which diffuse into the main flow. The potential equation is solved by the boundary element method. Combustion is treated as a thin sheet propagating at laminar flame speed using an extension of the simple line interface method to three-dimensions, now called a simple plane interface method. The code is demonstrated in application to a wedge shaped combustion chamber with surface irregularities closely approximating the actual shape.