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This paper introduces a new measuring and analyzing method for the investigation of the spatial flame propagation in IC engines. Three optical high-speed measuring devices are connected and synchronized in order to detect the flame radiation from different perspectives via fiberoptical endoscopes. The resulting two-dimensional images provide a starting basis for the subsequent reconstruction of the three-dimensional flame geometry. The reconstruction is carried out by a newly developed software tool. The capability of the new methodology has been proven in a first test series. A one-cylinder SI engine with direct-injection is operated in both homogeneous and spray-guided stratified injection mode. Intake flow conditions and air/fuel ratio are varied in order to investigate the effects on flame spread. The volumetric flame developments are analyzed as well as the location of the combustion center in absolute coordinates.

Engines with gasoline direct injection promise an increase in efficiency mainly due to the overall lean mixture and reduced pumping losses at part load. But the near stoichiometric combustion of the stratified mixture with high combustion temperature leads to high NOx emissions. The need for expensive lean NOx catalysts in combination with complex operation strategies may reduce the advantages in efficiency significantly. The Bowl-Prechamber-Ignition (BPI) concept with flame jet ignition was developed to ignite premixed lean mixtures in DISI engines. The mainly homogeneous lean mixture leads to low combustion temperatures and subsequently to low NOx emissions. By additional EGR a further reduction of the combustion temperature is achievable. The BPI concept is realized by a prechamber spark plug and a piston bowl. The main feature of the concept is its dual injection strategy.

In this work, heat loss was investigated in two different HCCI single cylinder engines. Thermocouples were adapted to the surfaces of the cylinder heads and the temperature oscillations were detected in a wide range of the engine operation maps. The resultant heat transfer profiles were compared to the heat losses predicted by existing models. As major discrepancies were stated, a new phenomenological model was developed that is well-manageable and describes the heat loss in HCCI mode more precisely than existing models. To analyze the insulating effect of deposits, the heat transfer equation was solved analytically by an approach that allows consideration of multiple layers with different material properties and thickness. This approach was used for the first time in conjunction with engines to calculate the heat flux at the surface of deposits and the deposit thickness.

For spark ignition engines, the most effective way to reduce the overall fuel consumption and CO2 emissions respectively is the implementation of gasoline direct injection technology. In comparison to the current wall and air guided systems, the direct injection system of the second generation - the spray guided DI- is the most promising one with respect to fuel economy and emission. In order to exploit its full potential, a thorough combustion process development regarding injector and spark plug design and their positioning within the combustion chamber is essential. Especially multihole injectors offer many degrees of freedom with regard to the nozzle shape and spray pattern. To reduce the development work and costs necessary to identify the ideal nozzle characteristic and spray pattern, reliable CFD models are necessary.

A multi-optical fiber measurement technique is presented which can determine spatial flame propagation with a high temporal resolution. With this measurement technique it is possible to investigate the combustion process in both Diesel and SI engines. The measurement technique can also be applied for the detection of flame propagation in research engines and in actual production engines for performing analysis of special problems such as knocking combustion, combustion chamber design studies which concern flame propagation, the influence of engine parameters on flame propagation, ignition and inflammability behavior. The new measurement technique is discussed in detail and the application of optical measuring points in the combustion chamber walls is demonstrated. A special non-contacting optical transmission system has been developed for the observation of flame propagation.

The emission behaviour of an internal combustion engine under test-bed conditions shows differences to the emission behaviour under real in-use conditions. Because of this fact, the developers of combustion engines and the legislator are focussing on the measurement and optimization of real in-use emissions. To this day, the research, the adjustment of the carburettor and the legislation of small handheld engines is performed under test bench conditions, especially conditioned fuel pressure and temperature, as well as air temperature. Also the engines are laid out for two operation points: rated speed with full open throttle and idle speed. This test-procedure is used for all kinds of handheld off-road applications and does not consider the load profile of the different power tools. Especially applications with transient load profiles, for example chainsaws, work in more than two operating points in real use.

Rapeseed oil can be a possible substitute for fossil fuel in Diesel engines. Due to different physical properties of rapeseed oil like higher viscosity and higher compressibility compared to diesel fuel, rapeseed oil cannot be easily used in conventional Diesel engines without modifications. Especially incomplete combustion leads to deposits in the combustion chamber and higher exhaust gas emissions. These unfavorable characteristics are caused primarily by insufficient mixture preparation. The adjustment of the injection system will improve the mixture preparation and the combustion of a Diesel engine, operated with rapeseed oil. The nozzle geometry is the main parameter of the whole injection system chain to realize a better combustion process and so higher efficiency and lower exhaust gas emissions.

Unstable combustion and high cyclic variations of the in-cylinder pressure associated with low engine running smoothness and high emissions are mainly caused by cyclic variations of the fresh charge composition, the variability of the ignition and the fuel mass. These parameters affect the inflammation, the burn rate and thus the whole combustion process. In this paper, the effects of fluctuating fuel mass on the combustion behavior are shown. Small two-stroke engines require special measuring and testing equipment, especially for measuring the fuel consumption at very low fuel flow rates as well as very low fuel supply pressures. To realize a cycle-resolved measurement of the injected fuel mass, fuel consumption measurement with high resolution and high dynamic response is not enough for this application.

In the present paper the results of a set of experimental investigations on LSPI are discussed. The ignition system of a test engine was modified to enable random spark advance in one of the four cylinders. LSPI sequences were successfully triggered and exhibited similar characteristics compared to regularly occurring pre-ignition. Optical investigations applying a high speed camera system enabling a visualization of the combustion process were performed. In a second engine the influence of the physical properties of the considered lubricant on the LSPI frequency was analyzed. In addition different piston ring assemblies have been tested. Moreover an online acquisition of the unburned hydrocarbon emissions in the exhaust gas was performed. The combination of these experimental techniques in the present study provided further insights on the development of LSPI sequences.

Modern direct injection spark ignition engines (DISI-engines) require increasing fuel-injection-pressures in order to accelerate mixture preparation. Therein the fuel-pump is an essential component. Non-conventional materials offer a high potential to realize high pressure combined with low wear and friction. An exemplary high pressure fuel pump was developed in order to evaluate the use of different combinations of ceramic materials and steel as sliding parts. Forces and friction coefficients can be retrieved as a function of the crank angle in the sliding contacts. The leakage in the gap between cylinder and piston was analyzed and an analytical model was developed. Important effects of clearance, stroke frequency and surface roughness on forces and friction coefficients are presented for different combinations of materials and fuels.

At part load and wide open throttle operation with stratified charge and lean mixture conditions the Direct Injection Spark Ignition (DISI) engine offers similar efficiency levels compared to compression ignition engines The present paper reports on results of recent studies on the impact of the in-cylinder processes in DISI engines e. g. the injection, the in-cylinder flow, the mixture preparation and the ignition on the combustion, the energy conversion and the exhaust emission behavior. The analyses of the spray behavior, of the in-cylinder flow during compression as well as of the flame propagation have been carried out applying advanced optical measurement techniques. The results enable a targeted optimization of the combustion process with respect to engine efficiency and exhaust emissions. The benefits of an increase in fuel injection pressures up to 100 MPa are discussed.

The two-stroke SI engine is the predominant driving unit in applications that require a high power-to-weight ratio, such as handheld power tools. Regarding the latest regulations in emission limits the main development area is clearly a further reduction of the exhaust emissions. The emissions are directly linked to the combustion processes and the scavenging losses. The optimization of the combustion processes, which represents one of the most challenging fields of research, is still one of the most important keys to enhance the thermal efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions. Regarding future emission regulations for small two-stroke SI engines it is inevitable that the emissions of gases causing the greenhouse effect, like carbon dioxide, need to be reduced. As most small SI engines are carburetted and operate open loop, the mixture formation and the amount of residual gas differs from cycle to cycle [1].

Diesel engines face difficult challenges with respect to engine-out emissions, efficiency and power density as the legal requirements concerning emissions and fuel consumption are constantly increasing. In general, for a diesel engine to achieve low raw emissions a well-mixed fuel-air mixture, burning at low combustion temperatures, is necessary. Highly premixed diesel combustion is a feasible way to reduce the smoke emissions to very low levels compared to conventional diesel combustion. In order to reach both, very low NOX and soot emissions, high rates of cooled EGR are necessary. With high rates of cooled EGR the NOX formation can be suppressed almost completely. This paper investigates to what extent the trade-off between emissions, fuel consumption and power of a diesel engine can be resolved by highly premixed and low temperature diesel combustion using injection nozzles with reduced injection hole diameters and high pressure fuel injection.

The focus of this work was to determine the influence of spray targeting on temperature distributions, combustion progress and unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions at cold operating conditions, and to show the capability of model and full engine tests adapted for different measurement techniques. A comprehensive study applying endoscopic visualization, infrared thermography, combustion and emission measurements was carried out in a 4-stroke 4-cylinder 16-valve production engine with intake port injection during different engine operating conditions including injection angle and timing. In addition 2D visualization and PIV measurements were performed in a back-to-back model test section with good optical access to the intake manifold and the combustion chamber. The measurements in both set ups were in good agreement and show that model tests could lead to useful findings for a real engine.

The combustion processes optimization is one of the most important factors to enhancing thermal efficiency and reducing exhaust emissions of combustion engines [1; 2]. Future emission regulations for small two-stroke SI engines require that the emissions of gases causing the greenhouse effect, such as carbon dioxide, to be reduced. One possible way to reduce exhaust gas emissions from two-stroke small off-road engines (SORE) is to use biogenic fuels. Because of their nearly closed carbon dioxide circuit, the emissions of carbon dioxide decrease compared to the use of fossil fuels. Also biogenic fuels have a significant influence on the combustion process and thus the emissions of different exhaust gas components may be reduced. Besides greenhouse gases, several other exhaust gas components need to be reduced because of their toxicity to the human health. For example, aromatic hydrocarbons cause dangerous health problems, and can be reduced by using alkylate fuel.

The two-stroke SI engine remains the dominant concept for handheld power tools. Its main advantages are a good power-to-weight ratio, simple mechanical design and low production costs. Because of these reasons, the two-stroke SI engine will remain the dominant engine in such applications for the foreseeable future. Increasingly stringent exhaust emission laws, in conjunction with the drive for more efficiency, have made new scavenging and combustion processes necessary. The main foci are to reduce raw emissions of unburned hydrocarbons via intelligent guidance of the fresh air-fuel mixture and to improve performance to reduce specific emissions. The flow velocity in the electrode gap of the spark plug is of great interest for the ignition of the air-fuel-mixture and the early combustion phase of all kinds of SI engines. In these investigations, the flow velocity in the spark plug gap of a two-stroke gasoline engine with stratified scavenging was measured under various conditions.

High frequency ignition (HFI) and conventional transistor coil ignition (TCI) were investigated with an optically accessible single-cylinder research engine to gain fundamental understanding of the chemical reactions taking place prior to the onset of combustion. Instead of generating heat in the gap of a conventional spark plug, a high frequency / high voltage electric field is employed in HFI to form chemical radicals. It is generated using a resonant circuit and sharp metallic tips placed in the combustion chamber. The setup is optimized to cause a so-called corona discharge in which highly energized channels (streamers) are created while avoiding a spark discharge. At a certain energy the number of ionized hydrocarbon molecules becomes sufficient to initiate self-sustained combustion. HFI enables engine operation with highly diluted (by air or EGR) gasoline-air mixtures or at high boost levels due to the lower voltage required.

In this work the formation and oxidation of soot inside a direct injection spark ignition engine at different injection and ignition timing was investigated. In order to get two-dimensional data during the expansion stroke, the RAYLIX-technique was applied in the combustion chamber of an optical accessible single cylinder engine. This technique is a combination of Rayleigh-scattering, laser-induced incandescence (LII) and extinction which enables simultaneous measurements of temporally and spatially resolved soot concentration, mean particle radii and number densities. These first investigations show that the most important source for soot formation during combustion are pool fires, i.e. liquid fuel burning on the top of the piston. These pool fires were observed under almost all experimental conditions.

This paper presents the results of a study on reasons for the occurrence of pre-ignition in highly supercharged spark ignition engines. During the study, the phenomena to be taken into account were foremost structured into a decision tree according to their physical working principles. Using this decision tree all conceivable single mechanisms to be considered as reasons for pre-ignition could be derived. In order to judge each of them with respect to their ability to promote pre-ignition in a test engine, experimental investigations as well as numerical simulations were carried out. The interdependence between engine operating conditions and pre-ignition frequency was examined experimentally by varying specific parameters. Additionally, optical measurements using an UV sensitive high-speed camera system were performed to obtain information about the spatial distribution of pre-ignition origins and their progress.

In this work the influence of various engine load changes with different engine speeds on the soot particle concentrations and properties was investigated because these operating modes are well known for short but high soot emissions. To derive specific information on emission behavior of particle matters tests were carried out with the Two-Color-Method and the so called RAYLIX technique in a four-cylinder CR-Diesel engine. The Two-Color-Method (2CM) gives crank angle resolved information about soot formation and oxidation processes inside the combustion chamber of a single cylinder. The RAYLIX technique is a combination of Rayleigh-scattering, Laser-Induced-Incandescence (LII) and extinction measurements which enable simultaneous measurements of temporally and spatially resolved soot concentration, mean primary particle radii and number densities in the exhaust gas manifold of the same cylinder investigated by the Two-Color-Method.