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A high pressure and high temperature evaporation model was implemented in the KIVA-3 multidimensional engine simulation. The most significant features of the new evaporation model are: the effects of Stefan flow on transfer rates are included; internal circulation is accounted using the effective conductivity model of Abramzon and Sirignano [1]; equilibrium composition is calculated at high pressures using a real gas equation of state; and properties are evaluated as functions of temperature, pressure and composition. The evaporation of a continuous spray of n-dodecane injected in a chamber pressurized with nitrogen gas was simulated using the two models. Predictions of the evaporation rate, the spray penetration and fuel vapor distribution by the two models were significantly different. The differences persisted over a range of ambient pressures and temperatures, injection velocities, initial droplet sizes and fuel volatilities.

A prototype chromel-alumel overlapping thin-film thermocouple (TFTC) has been developed for transient heat transfer measurements in ceramic-coated combustion chambers. The TFTC has been evaluated using various metallurgical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray detection, and Auger electron spectroscopy. The sensor was calibrated against a standard thermocouple in ice, boiling water, and a furnace at 1000°C. The microstructural and chemical analysis of the thin-films showed the alumel film composition was very similar to the bulk material, while the chromel film varied slightly. An initial set of ceramic plug surface temperatures was taken while motoring and firing the engine at 1900 rpm to verify thermocouple operation. The data shows a 613 K mean temperature and a 55 K swing for the ceramic surface compared with a 493 K mean temperature and a 20 K swing for the metal surface at the same location.

An early-design methodology for predicting both expected fuel economy and catalyst-out CO, HC and NOx concentrations during arbitrarily-defined transient cycles is presented. The methodology is based on utilizing a vehicle-powertrain model with embedded maps of fully warmed up engine-out performance and emissions, and appropriate temperature-dependent correction factors to account for not fully warmed up conditions during transients. Similarly, engine-out emissions are converted to catalyst-out emissions using conversion efficiencies based on the catalyst brick temperature. A crucial element of the methodology is hence the ability to predict heat flows and component temperatures in the engine and the exhaust system during transients, consistent with the data available during concept definition and early design phases.

Stringent fuel economy and emissions regulations have driven development of new mixture preparation technologies and increased spark-ignition engine complexity. Additional degrees of freedom, brought about by devices such as cam phasers and charge motion control valves, enable greater range and flexibility in engine control. This permits significant gains in fuel efficiency and emission control, but creates challenges related to proper engine control and calibration techniques. Accurate experimental characterization of high degree of freedom engines is essential for addressing the controls challenge. In particular, this paper focuses on the evaluation of three experimental residual gas fraction measurement techniques for use in a spark ignition engine equipped with dual-independent variable camshaft phasing (VVT).

Engine design and tribology engineers are constantly challenged to develop advanced products with reduced weight, reduced friction, longer life, and higher engine operating temperatures. The resulting engine systems must also meet more demanding emissions and fuel economy targets. Advanced energy-conserving lubricants and surface coatings are concurrently evolving to meet the needs of new engine materials. Because of the enormous cost and time associated with engine testing, much interest is being focused on the development of representative and repeatable bench tests for evaluation of engine materials and lubricants. The authors have developed a bench test employing reciprocating motion for evaluating friction and energy-conserving characteristics of lubricants.

We have developed a methodology for analysis of Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI) engines that applies to conditions in which there is some stratification in the air-fuel distribution inside the cylinder at the time of combustion. The analysis methodology consists of two stages: first, a fluid mechanics code is used to determine temperature and equivalence ratio distributions as a function of crank angle, assuming motored conditions. The distribution information is then used for grouping the mass in the cylinder into a two-dimensional (temperature-equivalence ratio) array of zones. The zone information is then handed on to a detailed chemical kinetics model that calculates combustion, emissions and engine efficiency information. The methodology applies to situations where chemistry and fluid mechanics are weakly linked.

Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engines offer a good potential for achieving high fuel efficiency while virtually eliminating NOx and soot emissions from the exhaust. However, realizing the full fuel economy potential at the vehicle level depends on the size of the HCCI operating range. The usable HCCI range is determined by the knock limit on the upper end and the misfire limit at the lower end. Previously proven high sensitivity of the HCCI process to thermal conditions leads to a hypothesis that combustion chamber deposits (CCD) could directly affect HCCI combustion, and that insight about this effect can be helpful in expanding the low-load limit. A combustion chamber conditioning process was carried out in a single-cylinder gasoline-fueled engine with exhaust re-breathing to study CCD formation rates and their effect on combustion. Burn rates accelerated significantly over the forty hours of running under typical HCCI operating conditions.

This paper analyzes and compares reactor and engine behavior of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) in the presence of conventional diesel exhaust and low temperature premixed compression ignition (PCI) diesel exhaust. Surrogate exhaust mixtures of n-undecane (C11H24), ethene (C2H4), CO, O2, H2O, NO and N2 are defined for conventional and PCI combustion and used in the gas flow reactor tests. Both engine and reactor tests use a DOC containing platinum, palladium and a hydrocarbon storage component (zeolite). On both the engine and reactor, the composition of PCI exhaust increases light-off temperature relative to conventional combustion. However, while nominal conditions are similar, the catalyst behaves differently on the two experimental setups. The engine DOC shows higher initial apparent HC conversion efficiencies because the engine exhaust contains a higher fraction of trappable (i.e., high boiling point) HC.

The thermal conditions of an engine structure, in particular the wall temperatures, have been shown to have a great effect on the HCCI engine combustion timing and burn rates through wall heat transfer, especially during transient operations. This study addresses the effects of thermal inertia on combustion in an HCCI engine. In this study, the control of combustion timing in an HCCI engine is achieved by modulating the residual gas fraction (RGF) while considering the wall temperatures. A multi-cylinder engine simulation with detailed geometry is carried out using a 1-D system model (GT-Power®) that is linked with Simulink®. The model includes a finite element wall temperature solver and is enhanced with original HCCI combustion and heat transfer models. Initially, the required residual gas fraction for optimal BSFC is determined for steady-state operation. The model is then used to derive a map of the sensitivity of optimal residual gas fraction to wall temperature excursions.

A laboratory test procedure was developed, and used to evaluate the deposit-forming tendencies of liquid fuels on a metal surface, and to identify deposit precursors in fuel. The impetus for this work was deposit formation in multiport fuel injection(MPFI) systems. Results from our laboratory test correlated well with those from engine dynamometer tests. Deposit formation is shown to be caused by the oxidation, condensation, and precipitation of unstable hydrocarbon species in the fuel. The immediate precursors for deposit formation were determined, based on liquid chromatographic separation and GC/MS analysis, to be oxygenated hydrocarbons included in the fuel.

This paper describes the concept and a practical implementation of piston-compounding. First, a detailed computer simulation of the piston-compounded engine is used to shed light into the thermodynamic events associated with the operation of this engine, and to predict the performance and fuel economy of the entire system. Starting from a baseline design, the simulation is used to investigate changes in system performance as critical parameters are varied. The latter include auxiliary cylinder and interconnecting manifold volumes for a given main cylinder volume, auxiliary cylinder valve timings in relation to main cylinder timings, and degree of heat loss to the coolant. Optimum designs for either highest power density or highest thermal efficiency (54%) are thus recommended. It is concluded that a piston-compounded adiabatic engine concept is a promising future powerplant.

Medium trucks constitute a large market segment of the commercial transportation sector, and are also used widely for military tactical operations. Recent technological advances in hybrid powertrains and fuel cell auxiliary power units have enabled design alternatives that can improve fuel economy and reduce emissions dramatically. However, deterministic design optimization of these configurations may yield designs that are optimal with respect to performance but raise concerns regarding the reliability of achieving that performance over lifetime. In this article we identify and quantify uncertainties due to modeling approximations or incomplete information. We then model their propagation using Monte Carlo simulation and perform sensitivity analysis to isolate statistically significant uncertainties. Finally, we formulate and solve a series of reliability-based optimization problems and quantify tradeoffs between optimality and reliability.

A regenerative braking model for a parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is developed in this work. This model computes the line and pad pressures for the front and rear brakes, the amount of generator use depending on the state of deceleration (i.e. the brake pedal position), and includes a wheel lock-up avoidance algorithm. The regenerative braking model has been developed in the symbolic programming environment of MATLAB/SIMULINK/STATEFLOW for downloadability to an actual HEV's control system. The regenerative braking model has been incorporated in NREL's HEV system simulation called ADVISOR. Code modules that have been changed to implement the new regenerative model are described. Resulting outputs are compared to the baseline regenerative braking model in the parent code. The behavior of the HEV system (battery state of charge, overall fuel economy, and emissions characteristics) with the baseline and the proposed regenerative braking strategy are first compared.

A personal computer-based vehicle powertrain simulation (VPS) is developed to predict fuel economy and performance. This paper summarizes the governing equations used in the model. Then the different simulation techniques are described with emphasis on the more complicated time-dependent simulation. The simulation is validated against constant speed and variable cycle test track data obtained for a 5 ton army truck. Then the simulation is used to compare the performance of the 5 ton truck when powered by a cooled and natually aspirated engine, a cooled and turbocharged engine, and an uncooled and turbocharged engine. Studies of the effect of payload, tire efficiency, and drag coefficient on vehicle performance are also conducted, as well as a performance comparison between manual and automatic transmissions. It is concluded that the VPS code can provide good predictions of vehicle fuel economy, and thus is a useful tool in designing and evaluating vehicle powertrains.

Modern diesel engines manufactured for commercial vehicles are calibrated to meet EPA emissions regulations. Many of the technologies and strategies typically incorporated to meet emissions targets compromise engine performance and efficiency. When used in military applications, however, engine performance and efficiency are of utmost importance in combat conditions or in remote locations where fuel supplies are scarce. This motivates the study of the potential to utilize the flexibility of emissions-reduction technologies toward optimizing engine performance while still keeping the emissions within tolerable limits. The study was conducted on a modern medium-duty International V-8 diesel engine with variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). The performance-emissions tradeoffs were explored using design of experiments and response surface methodology.

Variable geometry turbines (VGT) are of particular interest to advanced diesel powertrains for future conventional trucks, since they can dramatically improve system transient response to sudden changes in speed and load, characteristic of automotive applications. VGT systems are also viewed as the key enabler for the application of the EGR system for reduction of heavy-duty diesel emissions. This paper applies an artificial neural network methodology to VGT modeling in order to enable representation of the VGT characteristics for any blade (nozzle) position. Following validation of the ANN model of the baseline, fixed geometry turbine, the VGT model is integrated with the diesel engine system. The latter is linked to the driveline and the vehicle dynamics module to form a complete, high-fidelity vehicle simulation.

Gasoline-derived deposits in modern automobile engines can plug fuel injectors and impair engine performance. The deposits (which originate from gasoline oxidized at moderate temperatures) contain higher sulfur concentration than the fuel. We used laboratory tests to study the effect of organic sulfur on the formation of solid deposits in an uninhibited gasoline oxidized at 100°C. Gravimetric studies showed that the effect of sulfides on deposit formation was strongly dependent on the structure of the sulfur compound. Disulfides and thiophenes showed little or no effect. Thiols enhanced the formation of insoluble deposits; but 1-dodecanethiol decreased the amount of deposits formed after long oxidation times. Analysis of thin deposit films with XPS(ESCA) showed that sulfur in the deposits was primarily bound to oxygen. When the fuel was blended with thiols, non-oxidized sulfur also appeared in the deposits.

The effect of engine oil aging on the fuel economy of two matched 1998MY Buick Centuries equipped with 3.1L engines but operating on different GF-3 prototype engine oils (one SAE 5W-20 engine oil and a second SAE 5W-30 oil) has been determined in EPA FTP testing. Combined FTP Fuel Economy for these vehicles was reduced at a rate of 0.06-0.12% per 1,000 miles of accumulation. The data for the various parts of the FTP test indicated differences in the loss of FE with use for the two vehicles. The vehicle with the SAE 5W-20 oil containing a Mo-type FM additive showed a lower decrease in FE with use during the cold transient than the vehicle with the SAE 5W-30 oil. On the other hand, the vehicle with the SAE 5W-30 oil containing an organic type FM additive and a balanced detergent/dispersant package showed a lower rate of decrease of combined FE with use than the vehicle with the SAE 5W-20 oil. These differences may be indicative of the different additive chemistry in these oils.

Nine engine oils were evaluated in two GM vehicles: a 1993 Pontiac Grand Am with a 2.3L Quad4 engine and a 1993 Buick LeSabre with a 3.8L (3800) V-6 engine. Standard EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) fuel economy (FE), vehicle-dynamometer tests were conducted. The results were compared with the fuel economy obtained with a standard ASTM reference oil (BC). The vehicle data from this program were used in evaluating the new engine-dynamometer ASTM Sequence VI-A test designed to predict “real world” fuel economy in vehicles. EPA 55/45 combined fuel economy performance in the GM vehicles ranged from almost 2 percent improvement (over the BC oil) for an SAE 5W-20 oil, to over 2 percent poorer fuel economy than the reference oil for an SAE 20W-50 oil. The two different engines responded similarly to the different oils and showed similar trends.

Eight engine oils were evaluated in four GM vehicles in standard EPA fuel economy (FE), vehicle-dynamometer tests. The results were compared with the FE obtained with a standard ASTM reference oil (BC). The viscosity and the friction modification effects of engine oil on vehicle FE were quantified. Combined FE performance in the vehicles ranged from almost 2 percent improvement for an SAE 0W-10 oil, to over 1.5 percent poorer FE than the reference oil for an SAE 10W-40 oil. FE in three engines (3.1L, 3.8L, and 2.3L) showed a strong dependence on the viscosity of the oil (HTHS at either 100° or 150°C). This dependence was stronger during the city portion of the EPA test (lower temperatures) than the highway portion (higher temperatures). For the 5.7L engine no significant effect of oil viscosity on FE was observed although the highest FE seemed to be obtained at an HTHS (at 150°C) viscosity near 3.1 cP.