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This technical paper collection focuses on the general topic of combustion engine gaseous emissions (regulated and non-regulated). This includes well-to-wheels CO2 production for alternative technologies, fuel economy and all greenhouse gas emission research. It also includes hydrocarbon species and specific NOx species production over aftertreatment devices as a result of changes in fuel specification and the inclusion of bio-derived components and consideration of secondary emissions production (slip) as a result of aftertreatment.

This paper is aimed at highlighting the issues and challenges, and some control measures of GHG emissions (CO2, N2O and CH4) from transport vehicles. The importance of fuel economy improvement on CO2 emission reduction is emphasized as it will be an immediate solution to reduce the emission. ...The role of alternative fuels and vehicles on control of GHG emission is discussed in this paper. The CO2 emission norms proposed by some country are also discussed in detail.

By almost any definition, technology has penetrated the U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet significantly in conjunction with the increased stringency of fuel economy and GHG emissions regulations. The physical presence of advanced technology components provides one indication of the efforts taken to reduce emissions, but that alone does not provide a complete measure of the benefits of a particular technology application.

This is the second of two papers that examine the future effectiveness of the California greenhouse gas “GHG” program and the federal fuel economy program established in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (“EISA 2007”) in controlling greenhouse gases. ...This paper applies those fuel economy estimates to examine the impact of the California and federal programs on lifecycle emissions of GHGs and carbon dioxide (“CO2”). EISA 2007 not only proposes to improve car and LDT fuel economy, but it also proposes to reduce GHGs through its Renewable Fuel Standards (“RFS”) provisions, which are likely to lead to substantial expansion in the use of 85% ethanol gasoline blends (E85). ...EISA 2007 not only proposes to improve car and LDT fuel economy, but it also proposes to reduce GHGs through its Renewable Fuel Standards (“RFS”) provisions, which are likely to lead to substantial expansion in the use of 85% ethanol gasoline blends (E85).

Vehicle OEM’s for MHD applications are facing significant challenges in meeting the stringent 2027 low-NOx and GHG emissions regulations. To meet such challenges, advanced engine and aftertreatment technologies along with powertrain electrification are being applied to achieve robust solutions. ...FEV has previously conducted model-based assessments to show the potential of 48V engine and aftertreatment technologies to simultaneously meet GHG and low NOx emission standards. This study focuses on evaluating the full potential of 48V electrification technology through addition of 48V P3 hybrid system to the previously developed 48V advanced engine and aftertreatment technology package. ...The analysis showed the potential offered by the 48V hybrid system for meeting future low NOx and GHG emission regulations.

When considered along with Phase 2 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) requirements, the proposed Air Resource Board (ARB) nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission limit of 0.02 g/bhp-hr will be very challenging to achieve as the trade-off between fuel consumption and NOx emissions is not favorable. ...Each of these engine models met the 2027 Phase 2 GHG emission standards but used a different combination of technologies, including downsizing, downspeeding, variable compression ratio (VCR), cylinder deactivation, and turbocompounding. ...The results show that with appropriate selection of engine and aftertreatment technology packages, the 2027 Phase 2 GHG emission standards and the proposed 2024 ultra-low NOx emission standards can be achieved simultaneously.

This paper focused on the fuel consumption and GHG reductions. The fuel consumption was determined by volumetric, mass and energy per km travelled and per ton of GVW. ...The substitution ratio of PD by the C2G Ultra Biofuel is 86∼91% and 74∼81% for hot start and cold start trips respectively. The GHG reductions by the C2G Ultra Biofuel are 85∼89% and 73∼78% for hot start and cold start trips respectively.

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was evaluated using IPCC data for all three measured GHGs. The results show that N₂O and CH₄ can contribute to approximately 6~10% of GWP during cold start due to high GWP index, though their emissions were in a much lower magnitude. ...The influence of ambient temperatures on GHG emissions and GWP were assessed. The research provided a better understanding of traffic-related greenhouse gas emission profile in urban area and will contribute to the control of climate change.

Under U.S. GHG and CAFE regulations, manufacturers are required to perform confirmatory testing to validate indirect air conditioning credits (refer to 40 CFR 86.1868-12). ...This SAE Recommended Practice describes the work done by the IMAC GHG CRP to develop test procedures, publish SAE Standards, and determine performance requirements to demonstrate the performance of A/C technologies from the pre-approved credit menu meeting regulatory requirements.

Electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as AER increased. GHG emissions benefits may not be realized for PHEVs employing biomass-based fuels, e.g., biomass-E85 and -hydrogen, over regular HEVs if the marginal mix is dominated by fossil sources. ...The Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) model incorporated fuel economy and electricity use of alternative fuel/vehicle systems simulated by the Powertrain System Analysis Toolkit (PSAT) to conduct a well-to-wheels (WTW) analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Based on PSAT simulations of the blended charge depleting (CD) operation, grid electricity accounted for a share of the vehicle’s total energy use ranging from 6% for PHEV 10 to 24% for PHEV 40 based on CD vehicle mile traveled (VMT) shares of 23% and 63%, respectively. ...Besides fuel economy of PHEVs and type of on-board fuel, the type of electricity generation mix impacted the WTW results of PHEVs, especially GHG emissions. For an all-electric range (AER) between 10 to 40 miles, PHEVs employing petroleum fuels (gasoline and diesel), a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline (E85), and hydrogen were shown to offer 40–60%, 70–90%, and over 90% reduction in petroleum energy use, and 30–60%, 40–80%, and 10–100% reduction in GHG emissions, respectively, relative to an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) using gasoline.

The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Advanced Light-Duty Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis (ALPHA) tool was created to estimate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from light-duty vehicles. ALPHA is a physics-based, forward-looking, full vehicle computer simulation capable of analyzing various vehicle types with different powertrain technologies, showing realistic vehicle behavior, and auditing of internal energy flows in the model. ...In preparation for the midterm evaluation (MTE) of the 2017-2025 light-duty GHG emissions rule, ALPHA has been updated utilizing newly acquired data from model year 2013-2016 engines and vehicles. ...Simulations conducted with ALPHA provide data on the effectiveness of various GHG reduction technologies, and reveal synergies that exist between technologies. The ALPHA model has been validated against a variety of vehicles with different powertrain configurations and GHG reduction technologies.

The most life cycle energy and GHG reductions occur with aluminum, but the energy and GHG reduction per unit mass removed is greater for A/HSS. ...As lightweight materials and advanced combustion engines are being used in both conventional and electrified vehicles with diverse fuels, it is necessary to evaluate the individual and combined impact of these technologies to reduce energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This work uses life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the total energy and GHG emissions for baseline and lightweight internal combustion vehicles (ICVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) when they are operated with baseline and advanced gasoline and ethanol engines. ...For the scenarios considered in this work, the least life cycle energy and GHGs are obtained with a lightweight PHEV with an aluminum BIW and advanced gasoline engine. Overall, results show that advanced gasoline and ethanol engines and lightweight materials provide complimentary benefits for conventional and electrified vehicles and will reduce life cycle energy and GHG emissions while playing a key role in meeting future CAFE standards.

Vehicle lightweighting has been a focus of the automotive industry, as car manufacturers seek to comply with corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions standards for model year (MY) 2017-2025 vehicles. However, when developing a lightweight vehicle design, the automotive industry typically targets maximum vehicle weight reduction at minimal cost increase. ...Lightweighting with these materials, therefore, may partially offset the GHG emission reductions achieved through improved fuel economy. To retrospectively investigate the impact of this potential burden shifting from vehicle operation to vehicle production due to material substitution, historical weights, material compositions, fuel economies, and other characteristics of the U.S. light-duty fleet for 1995-2014 are presented and analyzed in this study. ...To retrospectively investigate the impact of this potential burden shifting from vehicle operation to vehicle production due to material substitution, historical weights, material compositions, fuel economies, and other characteristics of the U.S. light-duty fleet for 1995-2014 are presented and analyzed in this study. The GHG emissions from vehicle production, vehicle operation, and the entire life-cycle of the vehicle, are then estimated with Argonne’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET®) model.

Electric drive vehicles (EDV) have the potential to greatly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and thus, there are many policies in place to encourage the purchase and use of gasoline-hybrid, battery, plug-in hybrid, and fuel cell electric vehicles. ...What if policies took these differences into consideration with the goal of further reducing GHG emissions? This paper attempts to answer two questions: i) are there certain households that, by switching from a conventional vehicle to an EDV, would result in a comparatively large GHG reduction (as compared to other households making that switch), and, if so, ii) how large is the difference in GHG reductions? ...This paper attempts to answer two questions: i) are there certain households that, by switching from a conventional vehicle to an EDV, would result in a comparatively large GHG reduction (as compared to other households making that switch), and, if so, ii) how large is the difference in GHG reductions?

Historically, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions standards for vehicles have focused on tailpipe emissions. However, sound environmental policy requires a more holistic well-to-wheels (WTW) assessment that includes both production of the fuel and its use in the vehicle. ...The present research explores the net change in WTW GHG emissions associated with moving from regular octane (RO) to high octane (HO) gasoline. It considers both potential increases in refinery emissions from producing HO fuel and potential reductions in vehicle emissions through the use of fuel-efficient engines optimized for such fuel. ...Two engine designs were considered: one which could take little advantage of higher octane fuel to increase efficiency, and one which could be adjusted further to take advantage of the higher octane. WTW GHG emissions were analyzed within a life cycle analysis framework, where the upstream emissions of raw material and utility inputs to the refinery were added to the direct refinery emissions and product combustion emissions from the vehicle.

Nitrous oxide (N2O), with a global warming potential (GWP) of 297 and an average atmospheric residence time of over 100 years, is an important greenhouse gas (GHG). In recognition of this, N2O emissions from on-highway medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines were recently regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA) GHG Emission Standards. ...In recognition of this, N2O emissions from on-highway medium- and heavy-duty diesel engines were recently regulated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA) GHG Emission Standards. Unlike NO and NO2, collectively referred to as NOx, N2O is not a major byproduct of diesel combustion. ...Engine-based results show that N2O emissions for this nonroad engine and aftertreatment system are below the current 0.1 g/bhp·hr on-highway GHG standard. To better understand the processes which contribute to the system-level N2O emissions seen during engine testing, reactor-based experiments were conducted to elucidate the fundamental component-level mechanisms responsible for N2O formation.

Light Duty Vehicle corporate average fuel economy (CAFE), fuel economy label, and greenhouse gas (GHG) requirements are related but are very different. The fundamentals to obtain the data are the same, but to derive the required values, the final formulas have different components. ...This paper compiles the fundamentals of vehicle CAFE, fuel economy label, and GHG information. The intent is to provide a reference to the foundation of these requirements. This paper should not be used for compliance purposes and the actual regulations need to be referenced.

Globally, policymakers have been trying to reduce GHG emissions through a variety of policies and strategies Given that the Philippine ratio of greenhouse gas (GHG) to gross domestic product (GDP) is above the global average, GHG production is predicted to escalate if it remains unaddressed This study presents various methods for fuel estimates of drive cycles developed in the Philippines. ...With greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) being identified as a major cause, climate change is considered as a major environmental concern in recent decades. ...Globally, policymakers have been trying to reduce GHG emissions through a variety of policies and strategies Given that the Philippine ratio of greenhouse gas (GHG) to gross domestic product (GDP) is above the global average, GHG production is predicted to escalate if it remains unaddressed This study presents various methods for fuel estimates of drive cycles developed in the Philippines.

Use of renewable energies in vehicle electrification, including hydroelectric and photovoltaic energies, currently 39% of the generation mix, and gasoline usage reduction reduces GHG emissions of the country. The EV scenario; however, increases the GHG emissions of the subcompact vehicle by 22%, whereas this scenario reduces the emissions of the mid-size and the light-duty truck by 25% and 47%, respectively. ...The system boundary includes both the renewable and nonrenewable energy sources available in Chile and well-to-pump energy consumptions and GHG emissions due to Li mining and Li-ion battery manufacturing. All the major input data required for TEA and LCA were generated using Autonomie vehicle modeling software. ...The electrification of compact, mid-size, and a light duty truck, reduce the nationwide GHG emissions by 27%, 47%, and 37%, respectively, for the HEV scenario. Use of renewable energies in vehicle electrification, including hydroelectric and photovoltaic energies, currently 39% of the generation mix, and gasoline usage reduction reduces GHG emissions of the country.

The Advanced Light-Duty Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis tool (ALPHA) was created by EPA to evaluate the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions of Light-Duty (LD) vehicles. ALPHA is a physics-based, forward-looking, full vehicle computer simulator capable of analyzing various vehicle types combined with different powertrain technologies. ...The ALPHA tool was used to evaluate technology effectiveness and off-cycle technologies such as air-conditioning, electrical load reduction technology and road load reduction technologies of conventional, non-hybrid vehicles for the Midterm Evaluation of the 2017-2025 LD GHG rule by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ). ...The developed 48 V mild hybrid electric vehicle model can be used to estimate the GHG emissions and fuel economy of 48 V mild hybrid electric vehicles over the EPA regulatory drive cycles and to estimate off-cycle GHG emissions.