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As applications in aerospace, transportation and data centers are faced with increased electric power consumption, their dc operating voltages have increased to reduce cable weight and to improve efficiency. Electric arcs in these systems still cause dangerous fault conditions and have garnered more attention in recent years. Arcs can be classified as either low impedance or high impedance arcs and both can cause insulation damage and fires. Low impedance arcs release lots of energy when high voltage becomes nearly shorted to ground. High impedance arcs can occur when two current-carrying electrodes are separated, either by vibration of a loose connection or by cables snapping. The high impedance arc decreases load current due to a higher equivalent load impedance seen by the source. This complicates the differentiation of a high impedance arc fault from normal operation.

Small remotely piloted aircraft (10-25 kg) powered by internal combustion engines typically operate on motor gasoline, which has an anti-knock index (AKI) of >80. To comply with the single-battlefield-fuel initiative in DoD Directive 4140.25, interest has been increasing in converting the 1-10 kW power plants in the aforementioned size class to run on lower AKI fuels such as diesel and JP-8, which have AKIs of ~20. It has been speculated that the higher losses (short-circuiting, incomplete combustion, heat transfer) that cause these engines to have lower efficiencies than their conventional-scale counterparts may also relax the fuel-AKI requirements of the engines. To investigate that idea, the fuel-AKI requirement of a 3W-55i engine was mapped and compared to that of the engine on the manufacturer-recommended 98 octane number (ON) fuel.

Aircraft engine power is degraded with increasing altitude according to the resultant reduction in air pressure, temperature, and density. One way to mitigate this problem is through turbo-normalization of the air being supplied to the engine. Supercharger and turbocharger components suffer from a well-recognized loss in efficiency as they are scaled down in order to match the reduced mass flow demands of small-scale Internal Combustion Engines. This is due in large part to problems related to machining tolerance limitations, such as the increase in relative operating clearances, and increased blade thickness relative to the flow area. As Internal Combustion Engines decrease in size, they also suffer from efficiency losses owing primarily to thermal loss. This amplifies the importance of maximizing the efficiency of all sub-systems in order to minimize specific fuel consumption and enhance overall aircraft performance.

As the cost and complexity of modern aircraft systems increases, emphasis has been placed on model-based design as a means for reducing development cost and optimizing performance. To facilitate this, an appropriate modeling environment is required that allows developers to rapidly explore a wider design space than can cost effectively be considered through hardware construction and testing. This wide design space can then yield solutions that are far more energy efficient than previous generation designs. In addition, non-intuitive cross-coupled subsystem behavior can also be explored to ensure integrated system stability prior to hardware fabrication and testing. In recent years, optimization of control strategies between coupled subsystems has necessitated the understanding of the integrated system dynamics.

As technology for both military and civilian aviation systems mature into a new era, techniques to test and evaluate these systems have become of great interest. To achieve a general understanding as well as save time and cost, the use of computer modeling and simulation for component, subsystem or integrated system testing has become a central part of technology development programs. However, the evolving complexity of the systems being modeled leads to a tremendous increase in the complexity of the developed models. To gain confidence in these models there is a need to evaluate the risk in using those models for decision making. Statistical model validation techniques are used to assess the risk of using a given model in decision making exercises. In this paper, we formulate a transient model validation challenge problem for an air cycle machine (ACM) and present a hardware test bench used to generate experimental data relevant to the model.

As IC engines decrease in displacement, their cylinder surface area to swept volume ratio increases. Examining power output of IC engines with respect to cylinder surface area to swept volume ratio shows that there is a change in power scaling trends at approximately 1.5 cm−1. At this size, it is suggested that heat transfer from the cylinder becomes the dominant thermal loss mechanism and performance and efficiency characteristics suffer. Furthermore, small IC engines (>1 cm−1) have limited technical performance data compared to IC engines in larger size classes. Therefore, it is critical to establish accurate performance figures for a family of geometrically similar engines in the size class of approximately 1.5 cm−1 in order to better understand the thermal losses that contribute to lower efficiencies in small IC engines. The engines considered in this scaling study were manufactured by 3W Modellmotoren, GmbH.

Two compact intercoolers are designed for the Rotax 914 aircraft engine to increase engine power and avoid engine knock. A study is performed to investigate the effects of unsteady airflow on intercooler performance. Both intercoolers use air-to-liquid cross flow heat exchangers with staggered fins. The intercoolers are first tested by connecting the four air outlets of the intercooler to a common restricted exit creating a constant back pressure which allows for steady airflow. The intercoolers are then tested by connecting the four air outlets to a 2.4 liter, 4 cylinder engine head and varying the engine speed from 6000 to 1200 RPM corresponding to decreasing flow steadiness. The test is performed under average flight conditions with air entering the intercooler at 180°F and about 5 psig. Results from the experiment indicate that airflow unsteadiness has a significant effect on the intercooler's performance.

Next generation aircraft will require more electrical power, more thermal cooling, and better versatility. To attain these improvements, technologies will need to be integrated and optimized at a system-level. The complexity of these integrated systems will require considerable analysis. In order to characterize and understand the implications of highly-integrated aircraft systems, the effects of pulsed-power, highly-transient loads, and the technologies that drive system-stability and behavior, an approach will be taken utilizing integrated modeling and simulation with hardware-in-the-loop (HIL). Such experiments can save time and cost and increase the general understanding of electrical and thermal phenomena as it pertains to aircraft systems before completing an integrated ground demonstration. As a first step toward completing an integrated analysis, a dynamometer “drive stand” was characterized to assess its performance.

This paper presents the concept of a dual latent heat sink for thermal management of pulse heat generating electronic systems. The focus of this work is to verify the effectiveness of the concept during charging through experimentation. Accordingly, custom components were built and a prototype version of the heat sink was fabricated. Experiments were performed to investigate the implementation feasibility and heat transfer performance. It is shown that this heat sink is practicable and helps in arresting the system temperature rise during charging (period of pulse heat load).

Aircraft power demands continue to increase with the increase in electrical subsystems. These subsystems directly affect the behavior of the power and propulsion systems and can no longer be neglected or assumed linear in system analyses. The complex models designed to integrate new capabilities have a high computational cost. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) is being used to investigate aircraft power systems by using a combination of hardware and simulations. This paper considers three different real-time simulators in the same HIL configuration. A representative electrical power system is removed from a turbine engine simulation and is replaced with the appropriate hardware attached to a 350 horsepower drive stand. Variables are passed between the hardware and the simulation in real-time to update model parameters and to synchronize the hardware with the model.

As aircraft continue to increase their power and thermal demands, transient operation of the power and propulsion subsystems can no longer be neglected at the aircraft system level. The performance of the whole aircraft must be considered by examining the dynamic interactions between the power, propulsion, and airframe subsystems. Larger loading demands placed on the power and propulsion subsystems result in thrust, speed, and altitude transients that affect the aircraft performance and capability. This results in different operating and control parameters for the engine that can be properly captured only in an integrated system-level test. While it is possible to capture the dynamic interactions between these aircraft subsystems by using simulations alone, the complexity of the resulting system model has a high computational cost.

The two-phase flow modeling is done using the level set method to identify the interface of vapor and liquid. The modifications to the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations to consider surface tension, viscosity, gravity and phase change are discussed in detail. The governing equations are solved using finite difference method. In the present work, investigations on the effect of thermal conductivity and latent heat of vaporization of liquid on heat transfer in a 44 µm thick liquid film containing vapor bubble with droplet impact is investigated. The importance of thermal conductivity and latent heat of vaporization of liquid on heat transfer is identified. The variation of heat flux with thermal conductivity and latent heat is plotted. The computed liquid and vapor interface, velocity vector and temperature distributions at different time instants are also visualized for better understanding of the heat removal.

Advances in the past decade of the energy and power densities of lithium-ion based batteries for hybrid electric vehicles and various consumer applications have been substantial. Rechargeable high rate lithium-ion batteries are now exceeding 6 kW/kg for short discharge times (<15 seconds). Rechargeable lithium-ion polymer batteries, for applications such as remote-control aircraft, are achieving simultaneously high energy density and high power density (>160 Whr/kg at >1.0 kW/kg). Some preliminary test data on a rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery is presented. The use of high rate rechargeable lithium-ion batteries as a function of onboard power, electric laser power level, laser duty cycle, and total mission time is presented. A number of thermal management system configurations were examined to determine system level weight impacts. Lightweight configurations would need a regenerative thermal energy storage subsystem.

Aircraft power demands continue to increase with the increase in electrical subsystems. These subsystems directly affect the behavior of the power and propulsion systems and can no longer be neglected or assumed linear in system analyses. The complex models designed to integrate new capabilities have a high computational cost. This paper investigates the possibility of using a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) analysis with real time integration. A representative electrical power system is removed from a turbine engine model simulation and replaced with the appropriate hardware attached to a 350 horsepower drive stand. In order to update the model to proper operating conditions, variables are passed between the hardware and the computer model. Using this method, a significant reduction in runtime is seen, and the turbine engine model is usable in a real time environment. Scaling is also investigated for simulations to be performed that exceed the operating parameters of the drive stand.

The interdependency between propulsion, power, and thermal subsystems on military aircraft such as the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) and F-22 Raptor continues to increase as advanced war-fighting capabilities including solid-state radars, electronic attack, electric actuation, and Directed Energy Weaponry (DEW) expand to meet Air Force needs. Novel analysis and testing methodologies are required to predict these interdependencies and address adverse interactions prior to costly hardware prototyping. As a result, the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) has established a dynamic hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test-bed wherein transient simulations can be integrated through advanced real-time simulation with prototype hardware for integrated system studies and analysis. This paper details a test-bed configuration where a dynamic simulation of an aircraft turbine engine is utilized to control a dual-head electric drive stand.

The detrimental effects of prolonged sitting during long-duration flights include deep vein thrombosis, pressure sores, and decreased awareness and performance. However, the cushion is often the only component of the ejection seat system that can be modified to mitigate these effects. This study investigated the long-duration effects of sitting in four ejection seat cushions over eight hours. Subjective comfort survey data and cognitive performance data were gathered along with comparative objective data, including seated pressures, muscular fatigue levels, and lower extremity oxygen saturation. Peak seated pressures ranged from 1.22–3.22 psi. Oxygen saturation in the lower extremities decreased over the eight hours. Cognitive performance increased over time regardless of cushion with the exception of the dynamic cushion, which induced a decrease in performance for females.

A highly modified F/A-18 aircraft is being used to demonstrate that aeroelastic wing twist can be used to roll a high performance aircraft. A production F/A-18A/B/C/D aircraft uses a combination of aileron deflection, differential horizontal tail deflection and differential leading edge flap deflection to roll the aircraft at various Mach numbers and altitudes. The Active Aeroelastic Wing program is demonstrating that aeroelastic wing twist can be used in lieu of the horizontal tail to provide autonomous roll control at high dynamic pressures. Aerodynamic and loads data have been gathered from the Phase I AAW flight test program. Now control laws have been developed to exploit aeroelastic wing twist and provide autonomous flight control of the AAW aircraft during Phase II. Wing control surfaces are being deflected in non-standard ways to create aeroelastic wing twist and develop the required rolling moments without use of the horizontal tail.

Operator fatigue and time-of-day induced variations in cognitive effectiveness can lead to lapses in attention, slowed reactions, and impaired reasoning and decision-making that has been shown to contribute to accidents, incidents and errors in a host of industrial and military settings. During the past three years, the US Air Force has sponsored the development of a model of human fatigue and circadian variation and a scheduling tool based upon the model that will be used to minimize aircrew fatigue. The initial test version of the tool has passed review by the operational wings of the AF and a final operational product is in advanced development and validation. The software was developed by SAIC and NTI and is called the Fatigue Avoidance Scheduling Tool (FAST™). This fatigue forecasting system is being developed and tested by NTI under a small business innovative research (SBIR) grant from the US Air Force, now in the third year of a three-year program.

Side-facing seats are present in a variety of aircraft. During impact, these seats load the occupants in a different manner than typical forward-facing seats, namely the occupants are exposed to a lateral impact. In order to minimize injury during a crash, it is necessary for the occupants to prepare themselves and be situated in a position for maximum protection. In an effort to understand occupant initial position in a side-facing seat, a 3-D rigid-body model was developed of a side-facing seat configuration with three occupants, using the Articulated Total Body (ATB) program. The occupants were seated side-by-side in webbed troop-style seats, and each occupant was restrained by a lap belt. Three different initial occupant positions were studied, and each of the three occupants in a given simulation were seated in the same position. A 10 G lateral pulse with an approximate duration of 200 ms was applied to the vehicle.

Rotating Heat Pipe (RHP) technolog y is being developed for high speed (>20 krpm) regimes of electric motor/generator cooling. The motivation for this research is the potential application of the high speed RHPs for the thermal management of advanced rotating electrical machines. The passive nature and relatively simple features of this device are attractive for the removal of waste heat from the rotors of electric machines. Interesting air-cooling experimental results of two high speed RHPs designed, fabricated and tested at AFRL are presented here. Emphasis is made on external heat removal concepts useful for cooling the RHP condenser in order to be successful in promoting this technology to real world problems.