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The effects of changes in the cetane number of diesel liquid pilot fuels on the ignition delay period in dual fuel engines were investigated experimentally. Different pilot fuel quantities were employed with commercially pure methane, propane and low heating value gaseous fuel mixtures of methane with nitrogen or carbon dioxide over a range of engine load. The ignition delay variation with increased gaseous fuel admission showed a strong dependance on both the quantity and the quality of the pilot fuel used. It was found that the use of high cetane number pilot liquid fuels permitted smaller pilot quantities to be used satisfactorily. Engine operation on propane and low heating value gaseous fuels improved in comparison with dual fuel engine operation employing common diesel fuels.

Hydrogen is normally produced through the steam reforming of fossil fuels, notably natural gas or their partial oxidation in oxygenated air. The products of these processes would normally produce the H2 in the presence of a variety of concentrations of CO, CO2, H2O and N2. There is increasing interest in employing such mixtures whether on their own or in mixtures with traditional liquid or gaseous fuels in S.I. engine applications so as to improve the combustion process and engine performance. The combustion characteristics in S.I. engines of gas mixtures that contain H2 and CO need to be established to provide key operational information, such as the variations in the combustion duration and the knock limits. This paper presents experimental data obtained in a single cylinder, variable compression ratio, S.I., CFR engine when operated in turn on CH4, H2, CO and their binary mixtures.

A comprehensive modeling is made of the transient transport processes taking place within nearly-empty axisymmetrical cylindrical liquid fuel tanks. The resulting likelihood of the formation or dissipation of flammable mixtures within the tank with time as a consequence of the transient vaporization processes of the fuel are established. Some aspects of the predicted results were validated against our corresponding experimental results involving mainly pure liquid fuels in open cylindrical containers that were nearly-empty. The effects of fuel properties, geometry and ambient conditions are considered in relation to the possibility of having the atmosphere within the tanks supporting flame propagation, in the event of the presence of an ignition source somewhere within the tank or a flame just outside the tank. The effects of changes in some operating conditions on the potential for fire spread inside liquid fuel tanks are discussed.

A model is described for the prediction of the onset of autoignition and knock in compression ignition engines of the dual fuel type. The associated variations with time of performance parameters such as the energy release rate, cylinder pressure and charge temperature, power output and species concentrations can also be obtained. This is achieved through modelling in detail the chemical reaction rates of the gaseous fuel during compression and subsequently during diesel fuel pilot ignition and combustion. A comprehensive reaction scheme involving 105 reaction steps with 31 chemical species is employed for the purpose. The results are based mainly on methane or propane as the gaseous fuel while accounting for the contribution of pilot diesel fuel injection. Calculated data showed good general agreement with the corresponding experimental values.

The present contribution describes an analytical approach for predicting the highest limit for acceptable power or efficiency for any spark ignition engine while ensuring knock free operation. A deterministic gradient based model combined with a simple genetic algorithm were used in association with a two-zone engine combustion model to predict analytically the necessary changes in specified operating parameters to produce optimum performance. Various examples involving mainly spark ignition engine operation with methane-hydrogen fuel mixtures are presented and discussed.

The present contribution combines the consideration of the chemical reaction activity of the end gas and engine operating conditions to predict the onset of knock and associated performance in a spark ignition engine fuelled with methane. A two-zone predictive combustion model was developed based on an estimate of the effective duration of the combustion period and the mass burning rate for any set of operating conditions. The unburned end gas preignition chemical reaction activity is described by a detailed chemical reaction kinetic scheme for methane and air. The variation with time of the value of a formulated dimensionless knock parameter based on the value of the cumulative energy released due to preignition reaction activity of the end gas per unit volume relative to the total energy release per unit cylinder swept volume is calculated It is shown that whenever knocking is encountered, the value of builds up to a sufficiently high value that exceeds a critical value.

Light load operation of dual fuel engines, associated with the use of very lean gaseous fuel-air mixtures produces relatively significant exhaust concentrations of unconverted methane and carbon monoxide, especially when small pilot liquid fuel injection is involved. The nature of the processes that bring about such exhaust emissions and measures for their control are discussed.

The presence of carbon dioxide with methane is often encountered to varying proportions in numerous natural, industrial and bio-gases. The paper discusses how such a presence modifies significantly the thermodynamic, kinetic and combustion characteristics of methane in air. Experimental results are presented showing how the performance of engines, both of the spark ignition and compression ignition dual fuel types is adversely affected by the increasing presence of carbon dioxide with the methane. The bases for these trends are discussed and some guidelines towards alleviating the adverse effects of the presence of carbon dioxide in such fuel mixtures are made.

A preliminary investigation was made into the use of hydrogen-oxygen mixtures in spark ignition engines. This appeared to be attractive in view of the serious air pollution problem. Furthermore, hydrogen has been considered by others as a possible alternative fuel to replace depleting petroleum resources. Following a literature survey regarding the combustion characteristics of hydrogen, a computer program based on a constant-volume combustion engine cycle was used to evaluate the overall performance of an engine. Another program, which considered chemical reaction kinetics, was used to predict the onset of autoignition in mixtures undergoing compression in an engine. Results of the program indicated that an attractive and safe way to use hydrogen-oxygen mixtures in an engine involved the recycling of exhaust gases. Such a system would be fed with a stoichiometric mixture, while excess hydrogen would be circulated within to control combustion in the engine.

The present contribution is mainly concerned with an investigation of the characteristics of dual fuel operation under cold intake temperatures, primarily from the viewpoint of engine performance and exhaust emissions. The gaseous fuels employed were methane, propane, hydrogen and ethylene. The addition of the inerts carbon dioxide and nitrogen were also considered. Comparison with the corresponding normal diesel operation was made throughout.

Dual fuel engines compress the air/gas fuel mixture to just below autoignition conditions and then ignite it by the injection of a small amount of liquid fuel. The use and performance of these engines, however, have been limited by knock. Single cylinder engine experiments show that this limitation is a readily defined autoignition phenomenon, and can be analyzed by a mathematical model that indicates the effects on performance imposed by fuel changes and operating conditions. Experimental findings confirm that these performance data correlate broadly with those obtained conventionally in standard spark ignited or motored engines.

The paper describes the computational and experimental approach of deriving gross chemical kinetic data of the combustion of common fuels using a motored engine. The approach is based on the accurate calculation of the rate of heat release due to autoignition reactions. Kinetic data of the combustion of n-heptane, propane, and methane in air together with the role of the presence of a higher hydrocarbon vapour such as n-heptane with methane and propane are presented and discussed mainly in relation to dual-fuel engine phenomena.

An examination of the engine performance and associated combustion is made for a dual fuel engine of the compression ignition type when additional auxiliary fuels were introduced in turn in the form of a spray into the main intake charge with methane being the main fuel. This was attempted with the view of modifying the dual fuel engine behaviour particularly at light load. Alcohols, gasoline, benzene or normal hexane were introduced in turn to various extents into the intake charge of the engine. Comparison with dual fuel operation on a range of gaseous fuels and with water spray injection was made. It is shown that gasoline, benzene or n-hexane intake addition reduced the overall ignition delay significantly and increased the power output of the dual fuel diesel engine at light load. This, however, was achieved at the cost of undermining the efficiency of fuel utilization at higher loads.

The total number of vehicles fuelled with compressed natural gas, CNG, is relatively very small in comparison to gasoline fuelled vehicles. Accordingly, because of the lack of statistics of accidents involving CNG fuelled vehicles, their safety aspects are evaluated in comparison to automobiles fuelled with gasoline or some other alternative fuels such as propane, hydrogen, LNG or LH2. It is suggested that methane, CNG, has some excellent physical, chemical and combustion characteristics that make it a safe automotive fuel. These characteristics are reviewed and the superior relative safety of methane in automotive applications in comparison to applications involving the other fuels is demonstrated where well designed conversion systems and operations are employed.

Operating characteristics including ignition limits, cyclic variability, and exhaust emissions were studied in the combustion of natural gas in a spark ignition, single-cylinder, variable compression ratio engine, operated at intake mixture temperatures ranging between 120 and -60 F. The work confirmed in general the feasibility of using natural gas in a spark ignition engine operated under extremely cold intake temperature conditions. It was learned that both the maximum peak cylinder pressures and the mass of mixture inducted by the engine increased as the intake mixture temperature was lowered, and that the emissions of pollutants were not significantly increased. These findings are thought to be particularly relevant to the use of natural gas in spark ignition engines, either as LNG or under very cold wintry conditions.

Cyclic variations in engines have been the subject of much investigation and there are some excellent reviews of this research. However, there is still a need to examine in an integrated manner the cyclic variation in performance parameters such as indicated power output, efficiency and cylinder pressure development in relation to the cyclic variation in some important combustion parameters notably those of the ignition lag, which is the time requirements to initiate a flame kernel following the passage of a spark and the duration to complete the combustion process particularly when gaseous fuels, notably methane are used. The paper describes the results of an investigation with these objectives using a single cylinder, variable compression ratio, spark ignition, CFR engine, run at constant speed, operating mainly on natural gas.

A review is made of some of the main problems associated with the use of natural gas, notably methane, in dual fuel engines of the compression ignition diesel type. It is shown that such applications represent in principle a very attractive mode for the utilization of the fuel for the production of power generally at relatively high efficiencies and outputs with good exhaust emissions characteristics. Some relevant solutions to the problems outlined are then discussed. Moreover, some further research and development needed in this general area is also outlined.

The paper reviews the combustion characteristics of the two fuels and sets out to consider their respective performance in both spark ignition and compression ignition engines. Results of comparative tests involving spark ignition engines over a wide range of operating conditions are presented and discussed. Some of the performance characteristics considered are those relating to power output, efficiency, tendency to knock, cyclic variations, optimum spark requirements and exhaust emissions. Similarly, some of the performance characteristics in compression ignition engines considered include power output, efficiency, tendency towards knock and autoignition, exhaust emissions and low operational temperature problems. Finally, the relative operational safety aspects of the two fuels are evaluated. It is then suggested that in this regard, methane has some excellent physical, chemical and combustion characteristics that makes it a particularly safe fuel.

The paper considers the cyclic variations in performance parameters of a dual fuel engine fuelled with methane. It is shown that such an engine does display cyclic variations that are greater than the corresponding diesel operation, yet smaller than comparable spark ignition operation. The extent of cyclic variation in peak cylinder pressure and ignition delay increases, for any power output, as the pilot diesel quantity is reduced and the extent of gas substitution is increased. The use of extremely small pilots in the unmodified engine can lead to erratic engine performance. Greater cyclic variations are associated with low load rather than high load operation. Furthermore, with an injection system which is well matched to the engine, there is only little cyclic variation associated solely with the pilot, even when its quantity is small.

Examination is made of the changes that take place in the major parameters of the combustion process and engine performance when using three different designs of plasma jet igniters of the open cavity type in a methane fuelled single cylinder engine. The characteristics of the combustion process were analysed employing a two-zone diagnostic model based on cylinder pressure-time development data. The use of plasma jet igniters with methane as a fuel enhanced the rates of burning in the initial stages of combustion, especially with very lean mixtures. The lean limit of engine operation was also extended. Their use for near stoichiometric fast burning mixtures tends in comparison to contribute little towards enhancing engine performance.