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Transfer or response equations are important as they provide relationships between the responses of different surrogates under matched, or nearly identical loading conditions. In the present study, transfer equations for different body regions were developed via mathematical modeling. Specifically, validated finite element models of the age-dependent Ford human body models (FHBM) and the mid-sized male Hybrid III (HIII50) were used to generate a set of matched cases (i.e., 192 frontal sled impact cases involving different restraints, impact speeds, severities, and FHBM age). For each impact, two restraint systems were evaluated: a standard three-point belt with and without a single-stage inflator airbag. Regression analyses were subsequently performed on the resulting FHBM- and HIII50-based responses. This approach was used to develop transfer equations for seven body regions: the head, neck, chest, pelvis, femur, tibia, and foot.

Injury to the far side occupant has been demonstrated as a significant portion of the total trauma in side impacts. The objective of the study was to determine the response of PMHS in far side impact configurations, with and without generic countermeasures, and compare responses to the WorldSID and THOR dummies. A far side impact buck was designed for a sled test system that included a center console and three-point belt system. The buck allowed for additional options of generic countermeasures including shoulder or thorax plates or an inboard shoulder belt. The entire buck could be mounted on the sled in either a 90-degree (3-o'clock PDOF) or a 60-degree (2-o'clock PDOF) orientation. A total of 18 tests on six PMHS were done to characterize the far side impact environment at both low (11 km/h) and high (30 km/h) velocities. WorldSID and THOR-NT tests were completed in the same configurations to conduct matched-pair comparisons.

The objective of the study was to document the thoracic deformation contours in a simulated frontal impact. Unembalmed human cadavers and the Hybrid III anthropomorphic manikins were tested. Data from the newly developed External Peripheral Instrument for Deformation Measurement (EPIDM) was used to derive deformation patterns at upper and lower thoracic levels. Deceleration sled tests were conducted on three-point belt restrained surrogates positioned in the driver's seat (no steering assembly) using a horizontal impact test sled at velocities of approximately 14.0 m/s. Lap and shoulder belt forces were recorded with seat belt transducers. The experimental protocol included a Hybrid III manikin experiment followed by the human cadaver test. Both surrogates were studied under similar input and instrumentation conditions, and identical data acquisition and analysis procedures were used. All six testedcadavers demonstrated multiple bilateral rib fractures.

The development of the Translations Energy Criteria (TEC) has been underway for the last fifteen years. This criteria addresses brain contusion and skull fracture in the Anterior-Posterior (A-P), Left-Right (L-R), and Superior-Inferior (S-I) directions. The object of this strudy was to evaluate the ability of the TEC to predict non-fracture type injuries to the brain in the L-R and A-P directions up to the level of “serious.” Six unembalmed human cadavers were subjected to one head impact each. Tests one through three were frontal impacts, performed at 1.6, 3.9 and 6.7 m/s respectively. Tests four through six were lateral impacts, performed at 1.9, 3.8 and 6.1 m/s respectively. The impactor weighed 9.05 kg and was fitted with either a rigid or padded surface. The brain was repressurized and the head instrumented with two tri-axial linear accelerometer arrays and one angular velocity transducer. Two high speed motion picture views (1000 frames per second) were taken for each test.

The Frangible Abdomen is a crushable Styrofoam insert for the abdominal region of the Hybrid III family of dummies, which has biofidelity, and assesses the occurrence of submarining and its risk of injury. It was first developed for the mid-sized male Hybrid III dummy. This paper describes the design of the Frangible Abdomen for the small female Hybrid III dummy, and how to use it to assess the occurrence and the risk of injury from submarining. The force-deflection properties of the mid-sized male insert were scaled to the small female dimension using equal stress/equal velocity scaling. Sled tests were run to compare the kinematic and dynamic performance of the baseline small female Hybrid III dummy with the same dummy modified to incorporate the Frangible Abdomen. The kinematic and submarining performance of the small female Hybrid III dummy was unchanged by the addition of the Frangible Abdomen. The Frangible Abdomen was easy to install and use, and had excellent repeatability.

This study applies a detailed finite element model of the human body to simulate occupant knee impacts experienced in vehicular frontal crashes. The human body model includes detailed anatomical features of the head, neck, chest, thoracic and lumbar spine, abdomen, and lower and upper extremities. The material properties used in the model for each anatomic part of the human body were obtained from test data reported in the literature. The total human body model used in the current study has been previously validated in frontal and side impacts. Several cadaver knee impact tests representing occupants in a frontal impact condition were simulated using the previously validated human body model. Model impact responses in terms of force-time and acceleration-time histories were compared with test results. In addition, stress distributions of the patella, femur, and pelvis were reported for the simulated test conditions.

This paper presents the results of biomechanical testing of the SID-IIs beta+-prototype dummy by the Occupant Safety Research Partnership. The purpose of this testing was to evaluate the dummy against its previously established biomechanical response corridors for its critical body regions. The response corridors were scaled from the 50th percentile adult male corridors defined in International Standards Organization Technical Report 9790 to corridors for a 5th percentile adult female, using established International Standards Organization procedures. Tests were performed for the head, neck, shoulder, thorax, abdomen and pelvis regions of the dummy. Testing included drop tests, pendulum impacts and sled tests. The biofidelity of the SID-IIs beta+-prototype was calculated using a weighted biomechanical test response procedure developed by the International Standards Organization.

Airbag deployments are associated with loud noise of short duration, called impulse noise. Research performed in the late 1960's and early 1970's established several criteria for assessment of the risk of impulse noise-induced hearing loss for military weapons and general exposures. These criteria were modified for airbag noise in the early 1970's, but field accident statistics and experimental results with human volunteers exposed to airbags do not seem to agree with the criteria. More recent research on impulse noise from weapons firing, in particular that of Price & Kalb of the US Army Research Laboratory, has led to development of a mathematical model of the ear. This model incorporates transfer functions which alter the incident sound pressure through various parts of the ear. It also calculates a function, called the “hazard”, that is a measure of mechanical fatigue of the hair cells in the inner ear.

Two-dimensional film analysis was conducted to study the kinematics of the head and neck of 17 restrained human volunteers in 24 frontal impacts for acceleration levels from 6g to 15g. The trajectory of the head center of gravity relative to upper torso reference points and the rotation of head and neck relative to the lower torso during the forward motion phase were of particular interest. The purpose of the study was to analyze the head-neck kinematics in the mid-sagittal plane for a variety of human volunteer frontal sled tests from different laboratories using a common analysis method for all tests, and to define a common response corridor for the trajectory of the head center-of-gravity from those tests.

There is an increasing need to accurately define the soft tissue components of the human cervical spine in order to develop and exercise mathematical analogs such as the finite element model. Currently, a paucity of data exists in the literature and researchers have constantly underscored the need to obtain accurate data on cervical spine ligaments. Consequently, the objective of the study was to determine the geometrical and biomechanical properties of these ligaments from the axis to the first thoracic level. A total of thirty-three human cadavers were used in the study. Geometrical data included the length and cross-sectional area measurements; and the biomechanical properties included the force, deflection, stiffness, energy, stress, strain, and Young's modulus of elasticity data. Data were obtained for the following ligaments: anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, joint capsules, ligamentum flavum, and interspinous ligament.

With the widespread use of supplemental restraint systems (airbags), occasional rare injuries have occurred because of the force associated with these systems upon deployment. Recent case studies have demonstrated forearm fractures associated with airbag deployment. The present study was conducted to determine the tolerance of the human forearm under a dynamic bending mode. A total of 30 human cadaver forearm specimens were tested using three-point bending protocol to failure at 3.3 m/s and 7.6 m/s velocities. Results indicated significantly (p < 0.01) greater biomechanical parameters associated with males compared to females. The bending tolerance of the human forearm, however, was found to be most highly correlated to bone mineral density, bone area, and forearm mass. Thus, any occupant with lower bone mineral density and lower forearm geometry/mass is at higher risk. The mean failure bending moment for all specimens was 94 Nm.

Inertial loading of the head-neck complex occurs in rear impacts wherein the head and neck of the occupant are initially subjected to rearward forces. Epidemiological evidence exists to demonstrate the significance and societal impact of these injuries [4]. From a clinical perspective, trauma secondary to inertial loads belongs to the lower end of the Abbreviated Injury Scale, and no specific diagnostic techniques are available to quantitatively document the injury. Furthermore, identification of the mechanisms of injury and derivation of injury thresholds are limited. In fact, there is a paucity of literature focusing on the reproduction of rear impact-induced neck injuries due to a single-event rear impact. Because the impact acceleration is transmitted to the head from the torso via the cervical column, the components of the human neck play a role in the mechanics of trauma.

In 1998, Rouhana et al. described development of a new device, called the IR-TRACC (InfraRed - Telescoping Rod for Assessment of Chest Compression). In its original concept, the IR-TRACC uses two infrared LEDs inside of a telescoping rod to measure deflection. One LED serves as a light transmitter and the other as a light receiver. The output from the receiver LED is converted to a linear function of chest compression using an analog circuit. Tests have been performed with IR-TRACC units at various labs around the world since 1998. A first-generation IR-TRACC system was retrofit into a Q3 dummy by TNO. Similarly, a mid sized male Hybrid III dummy thorax and a small female Hybrid III dummy thorax have been designed by First Technology Safety Systems (FTSS) such that each contains 4 second-generation IR-TRACC units. The second-generation IR-TRACC is the result of continued development by FTSS, especially in the areas of the analysis circuit, manufacturing and calibration methods.

Spinal trauma produced from motor vehicle accidents, diving accidents, or falls occur at high rates of loading. This study was undertaken to reproduce clinically relevant cervical spine injuries under controlled conditions. Six isolated head - T2 human cadaveric preparations were tested using an electrohydraulic piston actuator at loading rates from 295 to 813 cm/sec. The Hybrid III head-neck was tested similarly at rates from 401 to 683 cm/sec. The input forces for specimen tests were of higher magnitude and shorter duration than the distally measured forces. In contrast, the Hybrid III head-neck revealed similar magnitude and duration force traces from input to output. The specimen preparations were analyzed kinematically at 1200 frames/sec with 20 to 30 retroreflective targets fixed to each level of the cervical spine. With this technique it is possible to temporally follow cervical damage as a function of applied force.

Injuries to the thorax and abdomen comprise a significant percentage of all occupant injuries in motor vehicle accidents. While the percentage of internal chest injuries is reduced for restrained front-seat occupants in frontal crashes, serious skeletal chest injuries and abdominal injuries can still result from interaction with steering wheels and restraint systems. This paper describes the design and performance of prototype components for the chest, abdomen, spine, and shoulders of the Hybrid III dummy that are under development to improve the capability of the Hybrid III frontal crash dummy with regard to restraint-system interaction and injury-sensing capability.

The objective of the present study was to determine the biomechanics of the human thorax in a simulated frontal impact. Fourteen unembalmed human cadavers were subjected to deceleration sled tests at velocities of nine or 13 m/s. Air bag - knee bolster, air bag - lap belt, and air bag - three-point belt restraint systems were used with the specimen positioned in the driver's seat. Two chest bands were used to derive the deformation patterns at the upper and lower thoracic levels. Lap and shoulder belt forces were recorded with seatbelt transducers. After the test, specimens were evaluated using palpation, radiography, and a detailed autopsy. Thoracic trauma was graded according to the Abbreviated Injury Scale based on autopsy findings. Peak thoracic deformations were normalized with respect to the initial chest depth to facilitate comparison between the specimens.

The objective of the study was to investigate the biomechanical response of the intact cranium. Unembalmed human cadavers were used in the study. The specimens were transected at the base of the skull leaving the intracranial contents intact; x-ray and computed tomography (CT) scans were obtained. They were fixed in a specially designed frame at the auditory meatus level and placed on the platform of an electrohydraulic testing device via a six-axis load cell. Following radiography, quasistatic loading to failure was applied to one of the following sites: frontal, vertex, parietal, temporal, or occipital. Retroreflective targets were placed in two mutually orthogonal planes to record the localized temporal kinematics. Applied load and piston displacement, and the output generalized force (and moment) histories were recorded using a modular digital data acquisition system. After the test, x-ray and CT images were obtained, and defleshing was done.

Head injury is a serious threat to lives of people working around farm machinery. The consequence of head injuries are costly, paralytic, and often fatal. Clinical and biomechanical data on head injuries are reviewed and their application in the analysis of head injury risk associated with farm tractor discussed. A significant proportion of tractor-related injuries and deaths to adults, as well as children, is due directly or indirectly to head injury. An improved injury reporting program and biomechanical studies of human response to tractor rollover, runover, and falls, are needed to understand mechanisms of the associated head injury.

Sixty-three simulated frontal impacts using cadaveric specimens were performed to examine and quantify the performance of various contemporary automotive restraint systems. Test specimens were instrumented with accelerometers and chest bands to characterize their mechanical responses during the impact. The resulting thoracic injury severity was determined using detailed autopsy and was classified using the Abbreviated Injury Scale. The ability of various mechanical parameters and combinations of parameters to assess the observed injury severities was examined and resulted in the observation that belt restraint systems generally had higher injury rates than air bag restraint systems for the same level of mechanical responses. To provide better injury evaluations from observed mechanical parameters without prior knowledge of what restraint system was being used, a dichotomous process was developed.

High-amplitude, short-duration noise is called impulse noise. A large body of literature on impulse noise has been developed primarily by military researchers for multiple exposures such as those caused by weapons firing. Some research into the impulse noise associated with air bag deployments was performed in the late 1960's and early 1970's to ascertain the risk of hearing loss. Several criteria for risk of noise-induced hearing loss were proposed and much was learned about the sources of the noise. Unfortunately, the instrumentation used to measure the noise in many of those studies lacked adequate low frequency response characteristics. Perhaps more importantly, results from experiments with human volunteers do not seem to agree with the proposed criteria. For this study, a new system consisting of commercially available pressure transducers and microphones was assembled and a new software package was developed.