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Due to increased awareness by customer perceived sound characteristics, advance simulation technique emerged in NVH domain for mid-high frequency like BEM, Hybrid and Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA). One of the most widely and accepted practice in high frequency NVH is SEA technique to assess and optimize acoustic sound pack for Air Borne Noise (ABN) in the range of 400 Hz to 6300 Hz typically for Powertrain and Tyre Patch Noise Reduction. As Prof. Lyon states that “The most obvious disadvantage of statistical approaches is that they give statistical answers, which are always subject to some uncertainty” [1]. It is always challenge for SEA engineer to get correlation for full vehicle level model for Tyre Patch Noise Reduction (TPNR) and Powertrain Acoustic Transfer Function (PT ATF) to acceptable level. Appropriate correlated SEA model is developed and few challenges associated with SEA modeling are also discussed in this paper.

A full calibration exercise of a diesel engine air path can take months to complete (depending on the number of variables). Model-based calibration approach can speed up the calibration process significantly. This paper discusses the overall calibration process of the air-path of the Cat® C7.1 engine using statistical machine learning tool. The standard Cat® C7.1 engine's twin-stage turbocharger was replaced by a VTG (Variable Turbine Geometry) as part of an evaluation of a novel air system. The changes made to the air-path system required a recalculation of the air path's boost set point and desired EGR set point maps. Statistical learning processes provided a firm basis to model and optimize the air path set point maps and allowed a healthy balance to be struck between the resources required for the exercise and the resulting data quality.

For the vehicles with frequent stop-start operations, fuel consumption can be reduced significantly by implementing stop-start operation. As one way to realize this goal, the pneumatic hybrid technology converts kinetic energy to pneumatic energy by compressing air into air tanks installed on the vehicle. The compressed air can then be reused to drive an air starter to realize a regenerative stop-start function. Furthermore, the pneumatic hybrid can eliminate turbo-lag by injecting compressed air into manifold and a correspondingly larger amount of fuel into the cylinder to build-up full-load torque almost immediately. This paper takes the pneumatic hybrid engine as the research object, focusing on evaluating the improvement of fuel economy of multiple air tanks in different test cycles. Also theoretical analysis the benefits of extra boost on reducing turbo-lag to achieve better performance.

Low temperature combustion (LTC) of diesel fuel offers a path to low engine emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), especially at low loads. Borescopic optical imaging offers insight into key aspects of the combustion process without significantly disrupting the engine geometry. To assess LTC combustion, two-colour pyrometry can be used to quantify local temperatures and soot concentrations (KL factor). High sensitivity photo-multiplier tubes (PMTs) can resolve natural luminosity down to low temperatures with adequate signal-to-noise ratios. In this work the authors present the calibration and implementation of a borescope-based system for evaluating low luminosity LTC using spatially resolved visible flame imaging and high-sensitivity PMT data to quantify the luminous-area average temperature and soot concentration for temperatures from 1350-2600 K.

Many modern I.C. engines rely on some form of active control of injection, timing and/or ignition timing to help combat tailpipe out emissions, increase the fuel economy and improve engine drivability. However, development of these strategies is often optimised to suit the average cycle at each condition; an assumption that can lead to sub-optimal performance, especially an increase in particulate (PN) emissions as I.C. engine operation, and in-particular its charge motion is subject to cycle-to-cycle variation (CCV). Literature shows that the locations of otherwise repeatable large-scale flow structures may vary by as much 25% of the bore dimension; this could have an impact on fuel break-up and distribution and therefore subsequent combustion performance and emissions.

Low temperature combustion (LTC) in diesel engines offers attractive benefits through simultaneous reduction of nitrogen oxides and soot. However, it is known that the in-cylinder conditions typical of LTC operation tend to produce high emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO), reducing combustion efficiency. The present study develops from the hypothesis that this characteristic poor combustion efficiency is due to in-cylinder mixture preparation strategies that are non-optimally matched to the requirements of the LTC combustion mode. In this work, the effects of three key fuel path parameters - injection fuel quantity ratio, dwell and injection timing - on CO and HC emissions were examined using a Central Composite Design (CCD) Design of Experiments (DOE) method.

The paper presents a novel method for the measurement of lubricant film thickness in the piston-liner contact. Direct measurement of the film in this conjunction has always posed a problem, particularly under fired conditions. The principle is based on capturing and analysing the reflection of an ultrasonic pulse at the oil film. The proportion of the wave amplitude reflected can be related to the thickness of the oil film. A single cylinder 4-stroke engine on a dyno test platform was used for evaluation of the method. A piezo-electric transducer was bonded to the outside of the cylinder liner and used to emit high frequency short duration ultrasonic pulses. These pulses were used to determine the oil film thickness as the piston skirt passed over the sensor location. Oil films in the range 2 to 21 μm were recorded varying with engine speeds. The results have been shown to be in agreement with detailed numerical predictions.

There is a great deal of interest in new technologies to assist in reducing the CO2 output of passenger vehicles, as part of the drive to meet the limits agreed by the EU and the European Automobile Manufacturer's Association ACEA, itself a result of the Kyoto Protocol. For the internal combustion engine, the most promising of these include gasoline direct injection, downsizing and fully variable valve trains. While new types of spray-guided gasoline direct injection (GDI) combustion systems are finally set to yield the level of fuel consumption improvement which was originally promised for the so-called ‘first generation’ wall- and air-guided types of GDI, injectors for spray-guided combustion systems are not yet in production to help justify the added complication and cost of the NOx trap necessary with a stratified combustion concept.

As part of an ongoing programme of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) wear investigations, this paper reports a study into the effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation, and a variety of interacting factors, on the wear rate of the top piston ring and the liner top ring reversal point on a 1.0 litre/cylinder medium duty four cylinder diesel engine. Thin Layer Activation (TLA - also known as Surface Layer Activation in the US) has been used to provide individual wear rates for these components when engine operating conditions have been varied. The effects of oil condition, EGR level, fuel sulphur content and engine coolant temperature have been investigated at one engine speed at full load. The effects of engine load and uncooled EGR have also been assessed. The effects of these parameters on engine wear are presented and discussed. When EGR was applied a significant increase in wear was observed at EGR levels of between 10% and 15%.

This paper presents an investigation of Cylinder De-Activation (CDA) technology on the performance of big end bearings. A multi-physics approach is used in order to take into account more realistic dynamic loading effects on the tribological behavior. The power loss, minimum film thickness and maximum temperature of big end bearings have been calculated during maneuver pertaining to the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). Results show that bearing efficiency runs contrary to efficiency gained through combustion and pumping losses. Under CDA mode, the power loss of big end bearings is more than the power loss under engine normal mode. The problem is predominant at higher engine speeds and higher Brake mean Effective Pressures (BMEP) in active cylinders. It is also observed that the minimum film thickness is reduced under the CDA mode. This can affect wear performance. In addition, same behavior is noted for the maximum temperature rise which is higher under CDA.

Compression ignition engines, including those that use natural gas as the major fuel, produce emissions of NOx and particulate matter (PM). Westport Inc. has developed the pilot-ignited high-pressure direct-injection (HPDI) natural gas engine system. Although HPDI engines produce less soot than comparable conventional diesel engines, further reductions in engine-out soot emissions is desired. In diesel engines, multiple injections can help reduce both NOx and PM. The effect of post injections on HPDI engines was not studied previously. The present research shows that late injection of a second gas pulse can significantly reduce PM and CO from HPDI engines without significantly increasing NOx or fuel consumption. In-cylinder pressure measurements were used to characterize the heat release resulting from the multiple injections. Experiments showed that most close-coupled split injection strategies provided no significant emissions benefit and less stable operation.

With the electrification of the automotive industry, electric motors have emerged as pivotal components. A profound understanding of their vibrational behaviour stands as a cornerstone for guaranteeing not only the optimal performance and reliability of vehicles in terms of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), but also the overall driving experience. The use of conventional finite element analysis (FEA) techniques for identification of the natural frequencies characteristics of electric motors often imposes significant computational loads, particularly when accurate material and geometrical properties and wider frequency ranges are considered. On the other hand, traditional reduced order vibroacoustic methodologies utilising simplified 2D representations, introduce several assumptions regarding boundary conditions and properties, leading to sacrifices in the accuracy of the results.

The replacement of the ICE engine with an electric motor has led to a significant reduction in vibration and noise. The characteristics of the electric motor as part of the powertrain still need consideration from an NVH perspective, as there are still two highly tonal components generating noise to the cabin, albeit at higher frequencies. The radial electromagnetic force causes a structural vibration on the casing which changes with motor speed and can be used to indicate vehicle speed. The current excitation causes a primarily tangential force on the poles of the motor at a specific frequency, but both are narrow band and can cause annoyance. The traditional approach to predicting the sound radiation of electric motors is usually based on finite element analysis (FEA). While this method has the capability to estimate the time response, it is computationally too demanding and does not allow for early investigations at systems level.

The primary function of automotive windscreen wipers is to remove excess water and debris to secure a clear view for the driver. Their successful operation is imperative to vehicle occupants’ safety. To avoid reliance on experimental testing there is a need to develop physics-based models that can quantify the effects of design-based decisions on automotive wipers. This work presents a suite of evaluative tools that can provide quantitative data on the effects of design decisions. We analyse the complex non-linear contact interaction between the wiper blade and the automotive screen using finite element analysis, assessing the impact of blade geometry on the contact distribution. The influence of the evolution of normal applied load by the wiper arm is also investigated as to how it impacts the contact distribution evolution. The dynamics of the blade are subsequently analysed using a multiple connected mass spring damper system.

Lightly damped non-linear systems such as vehicular drivelines undergo a plethora of Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) problems. The clonk phenomenon is one concern which occurs as the result of impulsive torque input in the form of sudden clutch actuation or throttle tip-in and back-out. The resulting impact of meshing gear pairs propagate structural waves down the driveline. With lightly damped thin-walled tubes having high modal density, elasto-acoustic coupling occurs. High frequency noise emission is of metallic nature and quite disconcerting to vehicle occupants as well as passers-by. It is perceived as structural failure and/or poor-quality build. Therefore, the occurrence of the phenomenon is a concern to vehicle manufacturers and progressively constitutes a warranty concern. This paper investigates the clonk phenomenon through use of a long-wheel base rear drive light truck test rig.

Sensor selection for the control of modern powertrains is a recognised technical challenge. The key question is which set of sensors is best suited for an effective control strategy? This paper addresses the question through probabilistic modelling and Bayesian analysis. By quantifying uncertainties in the model, the propagation of sensor information throughout the model can be observed. The specific example is an abstract model of the slip behaviour of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) DeNOx aftertreatment systems. Due to the ambiguity of the sensor reading, linearization-based approaches including the Extended Kalman Filter, or the Unscented Kalman Filter are not successful in resolving this problem. The stochastic literature suggests approximating these nonlinear distributions using methods such as Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC), which is able in principle to resolve bimodal or multimodal results.

Pilot-ignited high-pressure direct injection (HPDI) of natural gas in diesel engines results in lower emissions while retaining high thermal efficiency. As a study of HPDI technique, three-dimensional numerical simulations of injection, ignition and combustion were conducted. In particular, the effects on engine combustion of the injection interlace angle between the pilot diesel sprays and natural gas jets were investigated. Numerical simulations revealed ignition and combustion mechanisms in the engine with different injection interlace angles. The results show that altering the interlace angle changes the contact areas between the pilot diesel sprays and the natural gas jets; this affects the heat release rate. Statistical analysis was done to evaluate the expected value and variance of “closeness” between diesel sprays and natural gas jets for different injector tip configurations.

This paper reports the findings from an experimental investigation of the engine cooling jacket filling process for a medium duty off-highway diesel engine to characterise the physical processes that lead to the occurrence of trapped air. The motivation for the project was to provide knowledge and data to aid the development of a computational design tool capable of predicting the amount and location of trapped air in a cooling circuit following a fill event. To quantify the coolant filling process, a transparent replica of a section of the cylinder head cooling core was manufactured from acrylic to allow the application of optical diagnostic techniques. Experimentation has characterised the coolant filling process through the use of three optical techniques. These include the two established methods of High-Speed Imaging and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), as well as a novel approach developed for tracking the liquid-air interface during the fill event.

Heavy-duty diesel trucking is responsible for 25%-30% of the road transportation CO2 emissions in North America. Retrofitting class-8 trucks with a complementary hydrogen fuelling system makes it possible to co-combust hydrogen and diesel in the existing internal combustion engine (ICE), thus minimizing the costs associated with switching to non-ICE platforms and reducing the barrier for the implementation of low-carbon gaseous fuels such as hydrogen. This retrofitting approach is evaluated based on the exhaust emissions of a converted truck with several thousand kilometres of road data. The heavy-duty truck used here was retrofitted with an air-intake hydrogen injection system, onboard hydrogen storage tanks, and a proprietary hydrogen controller enabling it to operate in hydrogen-diesel co-combustion (HDC) mode.

This paper presents the findings from a numerical study of a gasoline direct injection engine flow using the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) modelling technique. The study is carried out over 30 successive engine cycles. The study illustrates how the more simple but robust Smagorinsky LES sub-grid scale turbulence model can be applied to a complex engine geometry with realistic engineering mesh size and computational expense whilst still meeting the filter width requirements to resolve the majority of large scale turbulent structures. Detailed description is provided here for the computational setup, including the initialisation strategy. The mesh is evaluated using a turbulence resolution parameter and shows the solution to generally resolve upwards of 80% of the turbulence kinetic energy.