Search Results

Abstract In this article, a hierarchical coordinated control algorithm for integrating active rear steering and driving/braking force distribution (ARS+D/BFD) was presented. The upper-level control was synthesized to generate the required rear steering angle and external yaw moment by using a sliding-mode controller. In the lower-level controller, a control allocation algorithm considering driving/braking actuators and tire forces constraints was designed to assign the desired yaw moment to the four wheels. To this end, an optimization problem including several equality and inequality constraints were defined and solved analytically. Finally, computer simulation results suggest that the proposed hierarchical control scheme was able to help to achieve substantial enhancements in handling performance and stability.

Abstract In this study, a computer-aided design (CAD) geometry system that is linked to each other to create a parametric form of the side rear door’s inner frame sheet piece on a passenger vehicle body in a Siemens NX environment was developed. The system was created in the NX CAD environment, using the program’s unique product development structure. The system was designed and modified for time-consuming parts. At the end of the study, the parameterized vehicle door geometries worked in the NX environment standardized the design process and accelerated the design works.

Abstract Threat identification and security analysis have become mandatory steps in the engineering design process of high-assurance systems, where successful cyberattacks can lead to hazardous property damage or loss of lives. This article describes a novel approach to perform security analysis on embedded systems modeled at the architectural level. The tool, called Security Threat Evaluation and Mitigation (STEM), associates threats from the Common Attack Pattern Enumeration and Classification (CAPEC) library with components and connections and suggests potential defense patterns from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-53 security standard. This article also provides an illustrative example based on a drone package delivery system modeled in AADL.

Abstract An accurate and rapid thermal model of an axle-brake system is crucial to the design process of reliable braking systems. Proper thermal management is necessary to avoid damaging effects, such as brake fade, thermal cracking, and lubricating oil degradation. In order to understand the thermal effects inside of a lubricated braking system, it is common to use Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to calculate the heat generation and rejection. However, this is a difficult and time-consuming process, especially when trying to optimize a braking system. This article uses the results from several CFD runs to train a Stacked Ensemble Model (SEM), which allows the use of machine learning (ML) to predict the systems’ temperature based on several input design parameters. The robustness of the SEM was evaluated using uncertainty quantification.

Abstract Off-highway equipment are subjected to diverse environmental conditions, severe duty cycles, and multiple simultaneous operations. Due to its continuous, high-power adverse operating conditions, equipment are exposed to high thermal loads, which result in the deterioration of its performance and efficiency. This article describes a model-based system simulation approach for thermal performance evaluation of a self-propelled off-highway vehicle. The objective of developing the simulation model including thermal fidelity is to quantify the impact of thermal loads on vehicular system/subsystems performance. This article also describes the use of simulation models for driving architectural design decisions and virtual test replication in all stages of product development.

Abstract Aircraft cybersecurity efforts have tended to focus at the strategic or tactical levels without a clear connection between the two. There are many excellent engineering tools already in widespread use, but many organizations have not yet integrated and linked them into an overarching “campaign plan” that connects those tactical actions such as process hazard analysis, threat modeling, and probabilistic methods to the desired strategic outcome of secure and resilient systems. This article presents the combined systems security engineering process (CSSEP) as a way to fill that gap. Systems theory provides the theoretical foundation on which CSSEP is built. CSSEP is structured as a control loop in which the engineering team is the controller of the design process. The engineering team needs to have an explicit process model on how systems should be secured, and a control algorithm that determines what control actions should be selected.

Abstract Steering feedback has an important role in good vehicle guidance by the driver. However, the design of the steering feedback usually happens late in the development process of prototype vehicles, when significant changes to the steering system are hardly possible. Hence, a steering system model is developed for the early stages of vehicle development, which is able to predict the transmission behavior of a steering system. Therefore, this article verifies that the steering system can be modeled independently of the tires and axle for relevant amplitudes of the steering feedback. The developed steering system model is a two-mass model consisting of an effective rack mass and a combined steering wheel and steering column inertia. Both are connected via the spring stiffness of the steering column and a steering gear ratio. Friction has a very dominant influence on the transmission behavior of the steering system and is therefore modeled at the column and rack.

Abstract Estimating the power demand of a steering system is one of the main tasks during steering system development in the concept phase of a vehicle development process. Most critical for typical axle kinematics are parking maneuvers with simultaneously high rack forces and velocities. Therefore, the focus of the article is a tire model for standstill, which can be parametrized without measurements, only having tire dimensions and conditions (inflation pressure and wheel load) as input. Combined with a double-track model, a vehicle model is developed, which is able to predict the rack force and is fully applicable during the concept phase. The article demonstrates quantitatively that the tie rod forces, and thereby especially the tire bore torque, cause the largest fraction of the power demand at the rack. For this reason, the prediction of the bore torque is investigated in detail, whereby basic approaches from the literature are analyzed and enhanced.

Abstract Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) is a key aspect in the vehicle development. Reducing noise and vibration to create a comfortable environment is one of the main objectives in vehicle design. In the literature, many theoretical and experimental methods have been presented for improving the NVH performances of vehicles. However, in the great majority of situations, physical prototypes are still required as NVH is highly dependent on subjective human perception and a pure computational approach often does not suffice. In this article, driving simulators are discussed as a tool to reduce the need of physical prototypes allowing a reduction in development time while providing a deep understanding of vehicle NVH characteristics. The present article provides a review of the current development of driving simulator focused on problems, challenges, and solutions for NVH applications.

Abstract Aerodynamic drag for road vehicles is most often assessed based on zero yaw conditions. The rise of electric vehicles in recent years put greater demand on how the vehicles perform in real-world conditions. Specifically, the aerodynamic drag performance at non-zero yaw angles has received increased attention. Various methods to calculate wind-averaged drag have been proposed. However, there have not been any studies done for the yaw distribution in China; this is important, given its diverse geographic and climatic conditions and growing number of vehicles. This study presents a methodology using probes integrated with a production vehicle to collect representative on-road data. A survey of on-road conditions in China is presented including coastal and inland provinces, different road types, and a range of traffic conditions. Using high temporal and special resolution meteorological data, the correlation between yaw angle distribution and natural wind is derived.

Abstract The present work deals with the damage life correlation of vehicle-level testing results of an axle housing for different road load conditions with the accelerated bench testing experiment results to reduce product development time. Also failure analysis is carried out to overcome the mechanical strength losses caused by the hot forming process during the manufacturing of housings. Commercial vehicle torture test tracks are built to reflect the forces similar to vehicle usage conditions from lighter to severe loadings. Strain data and calibrated force values are captured at the critical loading points in the axle for one cycle, at actual vehicle-driven speeds, to reflect the accelerated load values on five different track conditions. Damages estimation carried out based on the road loads reflects there will be no failure of axle housings till the acceptance of 120 repeats in different track combinations.

Abstract Rolling-resistance is leading the direction of numerous tire developments due to its significant effect on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions considering the vehicles in use globally. Many attempts were made to reduce rolling-resistance in vehicles, but with no or limited success due to tire complexity and trade-offs. This article investigates the concept of multiple chambers inside the tire as a potential alternative solution for reducing rolling-resistance. To accomplish that, novel multi-chamber designs were introduced and numerically simulated through finite-element (FE) modeling. The FE models were compared against a standard design as the baseline. The influences on rolling-resistance, grip, cornering, and mechanical comfort were studied. The multi-chambers tire model reduced rolling-resistance considerably with acceptable trade-offs. Independent air volumes isolating tread from sidewalls would maintain tire’s profile effectively.

Abstract This article presents an electric drive powertrain design and virtual integration methodology in the context of electric vehicle systems. In the first stage, using the Model-Based System Engineering paradigm, the electric vehicle performance requirements are translated into electric drive target specifications using a system-level vehicle model. Subsequently, a functional electric drive subsystem-level model is developed based on magnetic co-energy and iron losses data obtained from a reference electric machine design. The functional electric drive model is scaled in order to meet the requested specifications, and it is coupled with different 1D (i.e. lumped-parameter) multi-physics sub-models that are later integrated into the electric vehicle system-level model. At the electric drive level the torque ripple and Noise, Vibration and Harshness characteristics are analyzed.

Abstract The Aft Collision Assist (ACA) is an Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) that is added to a vehicle and integrates with the native systems of that vehicle. The ACA is used to monitor and reengage a distracted driver of an approaching vehicle that the ACA system calculates will imminently rear-end the host vehicle. This work provides a brief overview of existing ADAS that perform similar functions, the regulatory statutes and requirements that impact the ACA functionality, and Model-Based System Engineering (MBSE) model diagrams of the ACA. The MBSE model diagrams presented are State Machine, Conceptual Data Model, Use Case, System Requirements, and Regulatory Requirements for the entire ACA system. The MBSE models and regulatory constraints presented within are used to refine and specify the ACA method of attracting a distracted driver’s attention.

Abstract Industry 4.0 is expected to revolutionize product development and, in particular, manufacturing systems. Cyber-physical production systems and digital twins of the product and process already provide the means to predict possible future states of the final product given the current production parameters. With the advent of further data integration coupled with the need for autonomous decision-making, methods are needed to make decisions in real time and in an environment of uncertainty in both the possible outcomes and in the stakeholders’ preferences over them. This article proposes a method of autonomous decision-making in data-intensive environments, such as a cyber-physical assembly system. Theoretical results in group decision-making and utility maximization using mixture distributions are presented. This allows us to perform calculations on expected utility accurately and efficiently through closed-form expressions, which are also provided.

Abstract A methodology for the development of catalyst models is presented. Also, a methodology of the implementation of such models into a modular simulation tool, which simulates the units in succession, is presented. A case study is presented illustrating how suitable models can be found and used for simulations. Such simulations illustrate the behavior of the individual units and the overall system. It is shown how, by simulating the units in succession, the entire after treatment system can be tested and optimized, because the integration makes it possible to observe the effect of the modules on one another.

Abstract This article presents the methodical development of a subframe for a novel on-the-road-modular vehicle concept, which was developed for the U-Shift project. The subframe serves as the basis for a modular chassis. This chassis offers the possibility to exchange chassis components by the operator, which means after completion by the manufacturer, and thus to adapt the vehicle to different purposes. According to the applied methodology, the relevant wheel loads are determined and a geometric reference model is created. By defining the relevant load cases, the forces acting on the subframe, and thus the physical boundary conditions, can be determined from the wheel loads. In addition to the wheel loads and the geometric boundary conditions, no other vehicle parameters are required for the development of the subframe. The results of the topology optimization are used to identify areas of the geometric reference model that are not exposed to high loads.

Letter from the Special Issue Editors

Abstract Public discussions on the wide-scale implementation of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) mostly rely on the media. As such, what is usually understood about “autonomous vehicle technology” by the general society is not necessarily equal to the current stage of the industrial production of “autonomous vehicles” in a similar timeline. To elaborate, society tends to have a misunderstanding about the technology where the autonomous vehicle (AV) is commonly perceived as a “vehicle with the highest level of automation” [1]. In reality, to enable a feasible, market-wide deployment of the technology, CAV technology, as a product, should be released to the market incrementally in a technologically realistic timeline. This unrealistic expectation and misunderstanding by the public, due to the aforementioned misapprehensions, subsequently puts impractical business expectations on engineering and development teams.

Abstract While new materials are introduced in the automotive industry regularly, there seems to be a lack of generalized frameworks for how to do this efficiently and effectively. Multiple studies have been published on material substitution in a specific component, but the applicability of these to other projects are unclear. Therefore, the authors propose a generalized framework for introduction of new materials in existing production systems in this article. In a study based on three cases in the Swedish automotive industry, the authors have found generalizable insights on challenges and opportunities when introducing new materials that could be converted into a framework for introduction of new materials in the automotive industry. This framework contains both organizational and technological aspects of new material introduction, and is built chronologically from the start of a material strategy framework formulation to the start of a material introduction project.