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Renewable fuels, such as bio- and e-fuels, are of great interest for the defossilization of the transport sector. Among these fuels, methanol represents a promising candidate for emission reduction and efficiency increase due to its very high knock resistance and its production pathway as e-fuel. In general, reliable simulation tools are mandatory for evaluating a specific fuel potential and optimizing combustion systems. In this work, a previously presented methodology (Esposito et al., Energies, 2020) has been refined and applied to a different engine and different fuels. Experimental data measured with a single cylinder engine (SCE) are used to validate RANS 3D-CFD simulations of gaseous engine-out emissions. The RANS 3D-CFD model has been used for operation with a toluene reference fuel (TRF) gasoline surrogate and methanol. Varying operating conditions with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and air dilution are considered for the two fuels.

One of the basic topics in the design of new injection systems for DI Diesel engines is to decrease the soot emissions. A promising approach to minimize soot production are nozzles with clustered holes. A basic idea of the Cluster Configuration (CC) nozzles is to prevent a fuel rich area in the center of the flame where most of the soot is produced, and to minimize the overall soot formation in this way. For this purpose each hole of a standard nozzle is replaced by two smaller holes. The diameter of the smaller holes is chosen so that the flow rate of all nozzles should be equal. The basic strategy of the cluster nozzles is to provide a better primary break up and therefore a better mixture formation caused by the smaller nozzle holes, but a comparable penetration length of the vapor phase due to merging of the sprays. Three possible arrangements of the clustered holes are investigated in this study. Both the cluster angle and the orientation to the injector axis are varied.

To achieve the strict legislative restrictions for emissions from combustion engines, vast improvements in engine emissions and efficiency are required. Two major impacting factors for emissions and efficiency are the reliable generation of an effective mixture before ignition and a fast, stable combustion process. While the mixture of air and injected fuel is generated by highly three-dimensional, time-dependent flow phenomena during the intake and compression stroke, the turbulent flame propagation is directly affected by the turbulence level in the flow close to the advancing flame front. However, the flow field in the combustion chamber is highly turbulent and subject to cycle-to-cycle variations (CCV). To understand the fundamental mechanisms and interactions, 3D flow measurements with combined high spatial and temporal resolution are required.

Due to increasing environmental awareness, standards for pollutant and CO2 emissions are getting stricter in most markets around the world. In important markets such as Europe, also the emissions during real road driving, so called “Real Driving Emissions” (RDE), are now part of the type approval process for passenger cars. In addition to the proceeding hybridization and electrification of vehicles, the complexity and degrees of freedom of conventional powertrains with internal combustion engines (ICE) are also continuing to increase in order to comply with stricter exhaust emission standards. Besides the different requirements placed on vehicle emissions, the drivability capabilities of passenger vehicles desired by customers, are essentially important and vary between markets.

Gasoline particulate filters (GPF) recently entered the market, and are already regarded a state-of-the-art solution for gasoline exhaust aftertreatment systems to enable EU6d-TEMP fulfilment and beyond. Especially for coated GPF applications, the prognosis of the emission conversion performance over lifetime poses an ambitious challenge, which significantly influences future catalyst diagnosis calibrations. The paper presents key-findings for the different GPF application variants. In the first part, experimental GPF ash loading results are presented. Ash accumulates as thin wall layers and short plugs, but does not penetrate into the wall. However, it suppresses deep bed filtration of soot, initially decreasing the soot-loaded backpressure. For the emission calibration, the non-linear backpressure development complicates the soot load monitoring, eventually leading to compromises between high safety against soot overloading and a low number of active regenerations.

For compliance with legislative regulations as well as restricted resources of fossil fuel, it is essential to further reduce engine-out emissions and increase engine efficiency. As a result of lower peak temperatures and increased homogeneity, premixed Low-Temperature Combustion (LTC) has the potential to simultaneously reduce nitrogen oxides (BSNOx) and soot. However, LTC can lead to higher emissions of unburnt total hydrocarbons (BSTHC) and carbon monoxide (BSCO). Furthermore, losses in efficiency are often observed, due to early combustion phasing (CA50) before top dead center (bTDC). Various studies have shown possibilities to counteract these drawbacks, such as split-injection strategies or different nozzle geometries. In this work, the combination of both is investigated. Three different nozzle geometries with included spray angles of 100°, 120°, and 148° and four injection strategies are applied to investigate the engine performance.

Within the Cluster of Excellence “Tailor-Made Fuels from Biomass” (TMFB) at the RWTH Aachen University, two novel biogenic fuels, namely 1-octanol and its isomer dibutyl ether (DBE), were identified and extensively analyzed in respect of their suitability for combustion in a Diesel engine. Both biofuels feature very different properties, especially regarding their ignitability. In previous works of the research cluster, promising synthesis routes with excellent yields for both fuels were found, using lignocellulosic biomass as source material. Both fuels were investigated as pure components in optical and thermodynamic single cylinder engines (SCE). For 1-octanol at lower part load, almost no soot emission could be measured, while with DBE the soot emissions were only about a quarter of that with conventional Diesel fuel. At high part load (2400 min-1, 14.8 bar IMEP), the soot reduction of 1-octanol was more than 50% and for DBE more than 80 % respectively.

Today, automated vehicles mostly rely on ego vehicle sensors such as cameras, radar or LiDAR sensors that are limited in their sensing capability and range. Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication has the potential to appropriately complement these sensors and even allow for a cooperative, proactive interaction of vehicles. As such, V2X communication might play a vital role on the way to smart and efficient traffic solutions. In the public funded research project UK Autodrive, we are currently investigating and experimentally evaluating V2X-based applications based on dedicated short range communication (DSRC). Moreover, the novel application intersection priority management (IPM) is part of the research project. IPM aims at automating intersections in such a way that vehicles can pass safely and even more efficiently without the use of traffic lights or signs.

This paper introduces different modeling approaches of crankshafts, compares the refinement levels and discusses the difference between the results of the crankshaft durability calculation methodologies. A V6 crankshaft is considered for the comparison of the refinement levels depending on the deviation between the signals such as main bearing forces and deflection angle. Although a good correlation is observed between the results in low speed range, the deviation is evident through the mid to high speed ranges. The deviation amplitude differs depending on the signal being observed and model being used. An inline 4 crankshaft is considered for the comparison of the durability results. The analysis results show that the durability potential is underestimated with a classical crankshaft calculation approach which leads to a limitation of maximum speed of 5500 rpm.

Direct injection (DI) compressed natural gas (CNG) engines are emerging as a promising technology for highly efficient and low-emission engines. However, the design of DI systems for compressible gas is challenging due to supersonic flows and the occurrence of shocks. An outwardly opening poppet-type valve design is widely used for DI-CNG. The formation of a hollow cone gas jet resulting from this configuration, its subsequent collapse, and mixing is challenging to characterize using experimental methods. Therefore, numerical simulations can be helpful to understand the process and later to develop models for engine simulations. In this article, the results of high-fidelity large-eddy simulation (LES) of a stand-alone injector are discussed to understand the evolution of the hollow cone gas jet better.

In order to reduce engine out CO2 emissions, it is a main subject to find new alternative fuels from renewable sources. For identifying the specification of an optimized fuel for engine combustion, it is essential to understand the details of combustion and pollutant formation. For obtaining a better understanding of the flame behavior, dynamic structure large eddy simulations are a method of choice. In the investigation presented in this paper, an n-heptane spray flame is simulated under engine relevant conditions starting at a pressure of 50 bar and a temperature of 800 K. Measurements are conducted at a high-pressure vessel with the same conditions. Liquid penetration length is measured with Mie-Scatterlight, gaseous penetration length with Shadowgraphy and lift-off length as well as ignition delay with OH*-Radiation. In addition to these global high-speed measurement techniques, detailed spectroscopic laser measurements are conducted at the n-heptane flame.

Virtual system integration and testing using hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) simulation enables front-loading of development tasks, provides a safer and reliable testing environment and reduces prototype hardware costs. One of the greatest challenges to overcome when performing HiL simulations is assuring a high model accuracy under stringent real-time requirements with acceptable development effort. This article represents a novel solution by deriving the plant model for HiL directly from the existing detailed models from the component layout phase using co-simulation methodology. It provides an effective and efficient model implementation and validation process followed by detailed quantitative analysis of the test results referred to the engine test bench measurements.

Multiple three-phase machines have become popular in recent due to their reliability, especially in the ship and airplane propulsions. These systems benefit greatly from the robustness and efficiency provided by such machines. However, a notable challenge presented by these machines is the growth of harmonics with an increase in the number of phases, affecting control precision and inducing torque oscillations. The phase shift angles between winding sets are one of the most important causes of harmonics in the stator currents and machine torque. Traditional approaches in the study of triple-three-phase or nine-phase machines mostly focus on specific phase shift, lacking a comprehensive analysis across a range of phase shifts. This paper discusses the current and torque harmonics of triple-three-phase permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) with different phase shifts. It aims to analyze and compare the impacts of different phase shifts on harmonic levels.

As the market for electric vehicles grows, so does the demand for appropriate charging infrastructure. The availability of sufficient charging points is essential to increase public acceptance of electric vehicles and to avoid the so-called “charging anxiety”. However, the charging stations currently installed may not be able to meet the full charging demand, especially in areas where there is a general lack of grid infrastructure, or where the fluctuating nature of charging demand requires flexible, high-power charging solutions that do not require expensive grid extensions. In such cases, the use of mobile charging stations provides a good opportunity to complement the existing charging network. This paper presents a prototype of a mobile charging solution that is being developed as part of an ongoing research project, and discusses different use cases.

The regulations for mobile applications will become stricter in Euro 6 and further emission levels and require the use of active aftertreatment methods for NOX and particulate matter. SCR and LNT have been both used commercially for mobile NOX removal. An alternative system is based on the combination of these two technologies. Developments of catalysts and whole systems as well as final vehicle demonstrations are discussed in this study. The small and full-size catalyst development experiments resulted in PtRh/LNT with optimized noble metal loadings and Cu-SCR catalyst having a high durability and ammonia adsorption capacity. For this study, an aftertreatment system consisting of LNT plus exhaust bypass, passive SCR and engine independent reductant supply by on-board exhaust fuel reforming was developed and investigated. The concept definition considers NOX conversion, CO2 drawback and system complexity.

The increasingly stringent limits on pollutant emissions from internal combustion engine-powered vehicles require the optimization of advanced combustion systems by means of virtual development and simulation tools. Among the gaseous emissions from spark-ignition engines, the unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are the most challenging species to simulate because of the complexity of the multiple physical and chemical mechanisms that contribute to their emission. These mechanisms are mainly three-dimensional (3D) resulting from multi-phase physics - e.g., fuel injection, oil-film layer, etc. - and are difficult to predict even in complex 3D computational fluid-dynamic (CFD) simulations. Phenomenological models describing the relationships between the physical-chemical phenomena are of great interest for the modeling and simplification of such complex mechanisms.

The droplet velocity is an important parameter for breakup, evaporation, and combustion of Diesel sprays, but it is very difficult to measure it by widely used laser diagnostic techniques like PDA, PIV and LCV under realistic high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. This is basically caused by laser beam steering and multiple scattering of light due to very high droplet densities, in particular close to the nozzle. It was demonstrated recently, that these problems can be greatly reduced by the laser flow tagging (LFT) technique. For this purpose, the model fuel is doped with a phosphorescent tracer. A number of droplet groups within the spray are tagged by illuminating them with focused beams of a pulsed laser, and their velocities are measured by recording the phosphorescence twice after each laser pulse using a double-frame ICCD.

The performance of Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engines is governed by multiple physical processes such as the internal nozzle flow and the mixing of the liquid stream with the gaseous ambient environment. A detailed knowledge of these processes even for complex injectors is very important for improving the design and performance of combustion engines all the way to pollutant formation and emissions. However, many processes are still not completely understood, which is partly caused by their restricted experimental accessibility. Thus, high-fidelity simulations can be helpful to obtain further understanding of GDI injectors. In this work, advanced simulation and experimental methods are combined in order to study the spray characteristics of two different 3-hole GDI injectors.

This paper analyzes different concepts for storage and recuperation of kinetic energy during braking operation in a forklift truck application. The reduction of fuel consumption is one of the challenges for on and off-road vehicles. Starting from a conventional hydrostatic transmission, secondary hydraulic control and a hybrid solution are investigated. Wasting kinetic energy during braking operation of mobile working machines in cyclic applications and converting it into heat energy instead of reusable energy is a very inefficient principle still used in industry. Rising energy costs, enhanced government guidelines and increased environmental awareness require more efficient drive concepts for the next decades. Recuperation of kinetic energy during braking operation provides the opportunity of increasing the efficiency of mobile working machines. Efficient recuperation of kinetic energy requires a proper application and a low-loss system design.

One of the main challenges in internal combustion engine design is the simultaneous reduction of all engine pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), total unburned hydrocarbons (THC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and soot. Low-temperature combustion (LTC) concepts for compression ignition (CI) engines, e.g., premixed charged compression ignition (PCCI), make use of pre-injections to create a partially homogenous mixture and achieve an emission reduction. However, they present challenges in the combustion control, with the usage of in-cylinder pressure sensors as feedback signal is insufficient to control heat release and pollutant emissions simultaneously. Thus, an additional sensor, such as an ion-current sensor, could provide further information on the combustion process and effectively enable clean and efficient PCCI operation.