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EuroSID-2 and EuroSID-2re are among the most frequently used side impact dummies in vehicle crash safety. Radioss is one of most widely applied finite element codes for crash safety analysis. To meet the needs of crash safety analysis and to exploit the potential of the Radioss code, a new generation of EuroSID-2 (ES2) and EuroSID-2re (ES2_RE) Radioss dummies was developed at First Technology Safety System (FTSS) in collaboration with Altair. This paper describes in detail the development of the ES2/ES2_RE dummies. Firstly whole dummy meshes were created based on CAD data and intensive efforts were made to obtain penetration/intersection-free models. Secondly FTSS finite element certificate tests at component level were conducted to obtain satisfactory component performances. These tests include the head drop test, the neck pendulum test, the lumbar pendulum test and the thorax drop test [ 1 , 2 ].

This study examines the static pressure distribution under both width belts in the shoulder and the pelvis of 15 volunteer subjects. The subjects applied the belt loads to themselves through a lever and pulley system. The configuration of the belts simulated the typical arrangement of a six-point belted upright-seated racing driver. The pressure distribution between the belt and the volunteer's body was determined and recorded with Tek-Scan pressure sensing grids. The paper presents the results of the measurements by comparing the actual area of significant loading beneath the two widths and materials of both lap and shoulder belts. In, general, there no significant increase in loaded area for the wider belts.

The heads of auto racing drivers and military pilots are usually not supported so that neck fatigue and injury can be a serious problem. A new Head And Neck Support (HANS) is being developed to reduce head motions and neck loads. The biomechanical performance of HANS has been evaluated by crash victim modeling with CAL 3-D and by impact sled testing with a Hybrid III dummy. Modeling and testing were conducted at 30 and 35 mph BEV and with acceleration directions from the front, right front, and right lateral. The model and test results show that head motions, neck loading, and the potential for neck injury are all significantly reduced with HANS compared to without HANS.

A series of rigid wall tests have been conducted at three impact velocities to quantify the dynamic response of the Side Impact Dummy (SID) developed by US DOT. This paper reports the chest, pelvis and head responses of the dummy at various filter frequencies and describes the development and verification of the three-dimensional mathematical model of the Side Impact Dummy utilizing the rigid wall test results. The mathematical model uses the mass distribution and the linkage system of the current Part 572, Hybrid II dummy which forms the basic platform of the SID. The unique chest of the dummy is modeled by two systems of linkages simulating the rib cage and the jacket. Also included in the model is the internal hardware of the chest, e.g. a damper, rib stopper and a clavicle simulator at the upper spine. The material and linkage models are based on static and dynamic tests of the dummy components.

This paper describes the development of a three-dimensional lumped-mass structure and dummy model to study barrier-to-car side impacts. The test procedures utilized to develop model input data are also described. The model results are compared to crash test results from a series of six barrier-to-car crash tests. Sensitivity analysis using the validated model show the necessity to account for dynamic structural rate effects when using quasi-statically measured vehicle crush data.

The purpose of this study is to provide an understanding of driver kinematics, injury mechanisms and spinal loads causing thoracolumbar spinal fractures in Indianapolis-type racing car drivers. Crash reports from 1996 to 2006, showed a total of forty spine fracture incidents with the thoracolumbar region being the most frequently injured (n=15). Seven of the thoracolumbar fracture cases occurred in the frontal direction and were a higher injury severity as compared to rear impact cases. The present study focuses on thoracolumbar spine fractures in Indianapolis-type racing car drivers during frontal impacts and was performed using driver medical records, crash reports, video, still photographic images, chassis accelerations from on-board data recorders and the analysis tool MADYMO to simulate crashes. A 50th percentile, male, Hybrid III dummy model was used to represent the driver.

A PC based interactive program was developed to simulate the unfolding and deploying process of a driver side airbag in the sagittal plane. The airbag was represented by a series of nodes. The maximum allowable stretch was less or equal to one between any two nodes. We assumed that the airbag unfolding was pivoted about folded points. After the completion of the unfolding process the airbag would begin to deploy. During the deploying process, two parameters were used to determine the nodal priority of the inflation. The first parameter was the distance between the instantaneous and final positions of a node. Nodes with longer distances to travel will have to move faster. We also considered the distance between the current nodal position and the gas inlet location. For a node closer to the gas inlet, we assumed that the deploying speed was faster. A graphical procedure was used to calculate the area of the airbag.

Two 50th percentile anthropomorphic test devices are specified as alternate test devices for FMVSS 208 compliance testing. These test devices are commonly known as the Hybrid II and the Hybrid III dummies. The designs of the two dummies are different, representing the state-of-the-art in the time frame of their designs. The trajectory differences between the two dummies have been published in the literature, but response differences, e.g., HIC and chest acceleration are not available in the literature. To quantify response differences between the two dummies, a series of sled tests with open bucks and with bucks simulating vehicle interior were conducted with restrained dummies. Additional crash tests were also conducted with the two dummies. This paper reports on an analysis of the data from the above series of tests. The data indicate that in non-head contact simulations with belt restraint systems, Hybrid III HIC's are nearly 50% higher than Hybrid II HIC's.

Studies have shown that dummies can be used to study various issues relating to an unrestrained driver's interaction with the steering system in frontal crashes. However, current dummies have limitations in simulation of car occupants and to assess the spectrum of injury types and mechanisms. Human cadaver subjects were used to study abdominal injury and “severe” steering wheel deformation as part of an evaluation of energy absorbing steering systems. A predominant factor influencing abdominal injury in these tests was the impact location of the lower rim, injury being associated with the rim aligned 50 mm below the xiphoid. The dummies developed approximately twice the impact force than the cadaver subjects in these severe tests with a noncompressible column, in part due to the chest of the dummies “bottoming” out on a rigid spine.

The objective of this study was to analyze available anthropomorphic test device (ATD) responses from KARCO rear impact tests and to evaluate an injury predictive model based on crash severity and occupant weight presented by Saczalski et al. (2004). The KARCO tests were carried out with various seat designs. Biomechanical responses were evaluated in speed ranges of 7-12, 13-17, 18-23 and 24-34 mph. For this analysis, all tests with matching yielding and stiff seats and matching occupant size and weight were analyzed for cases without 2nd row occupant interaction. Overall, the test data shows that conventional yielding seats provide a high degree of safety for small to large adult occupants in rear crashes; this data is also consistent with good field performance as found in NASS-CDS. Saczalski et al.'s (2004) predictive model of occupant injury is not correct as there are numerous cases from NASS-CDS that show no or minor injury in the region where serious injury is predicted.

This paper describes the development of new advanced Finite Element (FE) models of the World SID series, namely World SID 50th and 5th, the new generation of side impact Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATD). The model development follows the FTSS's rigorous quality assurance (QA) procedure and uses the manufacture's product data and test facilities extensively. The models are validated at material, component & assembly, full dummy certification and sled test application levels. A detailed modeling methodology is described. The models correlate well with both the component and whole dummy level test results.

Macroscopic constitutive behaviors of aluminum 5052-H38 honeycombs under dynamic inclined loads with respect to the out-of-plane direction are investigated by experiments. The results of the dynamic crush tests indicate that as the impact velocity increases, the normal crush strength increases and the shear strength remains nearly the same for a fixed ratio of the normal to shear displacement rate. The experimental results suggest that the macroscopic yield surface of the honeycomb specimens as a function of the impact velocity under the given dynamic inclined loads is not governed by the isotropic hardening rule of the classical plasticity theory. As the impact velocity increases, the shape of the macroscopic yield surface changes, or more specifically, the curvature of the yield surface increases near the pure compression state.

This paper builds on previous research on the development of a head displacement model for restrained occupants in frontal collisions. Physical and mathematical simulations were performed utilizing the 5th percentile female and 50th percentile male Hybrid III dummies to measure the effect of occupant size, seat belt system design and crash severity on resultant head displacement of occupants in frontal collisions. Sled and simulation accelerations ranged from 10 g to 20 g with delta-V's from 6.6 m/s to 10.0 m/s. Results indicate a difference between the 5th percentile female and 50th percentile male dummies. Preliminary assessment of head displacement as a function of occupant kinetic energy demonstrated good correlation.

This research focuses on the response of the Q3, Hybrid III 3-year-old dummy and a child finite element model in a simulated 213 sled test. The Q3 and Hybrid III 3-year old child finite element models were developed by First Technology Safety Systems. The 3-year-old child finite element model was developed by Nagoya University by model-based scaling from the AM50 (50 percentile male) total human model for safety. The child models were positioned in a forward facing, five-point child restraint system using Finite Element Model Builder. An acceleration pulse acquired from an experimental 213 sled test, which was completed following the guidelines outlined in the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 213 using a Hybrid III 3-year-old dummy, was applied to the seat buck supporting the child restraint seat. The numerical simulations utilizing the Q3, Hybrid III 3-year-old and the child finite element model were conducted using the explicit non-linear finite element code LS-DYNA.

This study applies a detailed finite element model of the human body to simulate occupant knee impacts experienced in vehicular frontal crashes. The human body model includes detailed anatomical features of the head, neck, chest, thoracic and lumbar spine, abdomen, and lower and upper extremities. The material properties used in the model for each anatomic part of the human body were obtained from test data reported in the literature. The total human body model used in the current study has been previously validated in frontal and side impacts. Several cadaver knee impact tests representing occupants in a frontal impact condition were simulated using the previously validated human body model. Model impact responses in terms of force-time and acceleration-time histories were compared with test results. In addition, stress distributions of the patella, femur, and pelvis were reported for the simulated test conditions.

This study identified the mechanical properties of ten cadaveric lumbar spines and two Hybrid III lumbar spines. Eight tests were performed on each specimen: tension, compression, anterior shear, posterior shear, left lateral shear, flexion, extension and left lateral bending. Each test was run at a displacement rate of 100 mm/sec. The maximum displacements were selected to approximate the loading range of a 50 km/h Hybrid III dummy sled test and to be non-destructive to the specimens. Load, linear displacement and angular displacement data were collected. Bending moment was calculated from force data. Each mode of loading demonstrated consistent characteristics. The load-displacement curves of the Hybrid III lumbar spine demonstrated an initial region of high stiffness followed by a region of constant stiffness.

A three-dimensional finite element model of a human neck has been developed in an effort to study the mechanics of cervical spine while subjected to impacts. The neck geometry was obtained from MRI scans of a 50th percentile male volunteer. This model, consisting of the vertebrae from C1 through T1 including the intervertebral discs and posterior elements, was constructed primarily of 8-node brick elements. The vertebrae were modeled using linear elastic-plastic materials, while the intervertebral discs were modeled using linear viscoelastic materials. Sliding interfaces were defined to simulate the motion of synovial facet joints. Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, facet joint capsular ligaments, alar ligaments, transverse ligaments, and anterior and posterior atlanto-occipital membranes were modeled as nonlinear bar elements or as tension-only membrane elements. A previously developed head and brain model was also incorporated.

The modular dummy model is a new concept to represent a crash dummy in computer simulation. The modular dummy model could be a solution with combination of acceptable responses and quick run times. The approach of the modular dummy model is to take an existing standard model and create rigid modules of all major dummy components (Head, Thorax, Pelvis, Femurs, Tibias, Feet, etc.), which are fully interchangeable between deformable and rigid modules. The special run time efficient component models for the neck and lumbar spine are also developed for the modular dummy. Mass and inertial properties of each rigid module are derived from the corresponding deformable part. The joint and connection definitions are shared between the rigid and deformable modules. The users only need to decide and select which modules should be used in order to achieve the best compromise between CPU time and accuracy for the specific application.

In the 1999 Supplemental Notice for Proposed Rulemaking (SNPRM) for Advanced Airbags, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) sought comments on the maximum speed at which the high-speed, unbelted occupant test suite will be conducted, i.e., 48 kph vs. 40 kph. To help address this question, an analysis of constraints was performed via extensive mathematical modeling of a theoretical restraint system. First, math models (correlated with several existing physical tests) were used to predict the occupant responses associated with 336 different theoretical dual-stage driver airbag designs subjected to six specific Regulated and non-Regulated tests.

Lower extremity injuries in frontal automotive crashes usually occur with footwell intrusion where both the knee and foot are constrained. In order to identify factors associated with tibial shaft injury, a series of numerical simulations were conducted using a finite element model of the whole human body. These simulations demonstrated that tibial mid-shaft injuries in frontal crashes could be caused by an abrupt change in velocity and a high rate of footwell intrusion.