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This paper presents a conceptual design of a short-radius centrifuge for orbital application, contained in an inflatable structure. The objectives of this design are: to support the physical effectiveness of the crew by offering an exercise facility; to provide a test bed for biomedical experiments on human centrifugation in orbit; and to offer recreational benefits during long periods of confinement. The use of a pneumatic structure that can expand in orbit allows maximizing the radius of the centrifuge within mass and launch constraints. The proposed project is composed of elements with standard interfaces; its environmental design is based on human factor considerations from biomedical literature, and it respects current ergonomics and NASA standards.

Posture and gait controls underlie the fundamental physical and cognitive human factors necessary for astronauts’ safety and performance in Space. This central subsystem is adversely affected when exposed to an extreme or hostile environment. A specific stimulation, using dermal optical sensitivity, can be provided to the central nervous system to counteract peripheral stimulations due to microgravity as well as other negative stressors. We believe using dermal optical sensitivity-based stimulation can be key in the performance enhancement necessary to ensure human based space mission viability and success.

A sense of “personal integrity” blocks pilot use of new information about how he thinks. Research on human performance under stress done over the past fifty years indicates increased rigidity and regression to earlier learned behavior in high stress, and in low Stress a shift in attention to any domestic situation or on the job controversy which is of higher stress than that of the job at hand, all without the pilot's knowledge. Informal surveys of commercial pilot training and commercial pilot attitudes towards these studies indicate that the study findings directly confront learned cultural responses. Pilot and trainer reactions prevent the information from being adequately investigated or formally taught. The findings are not written into training manuals and pilots who are informally given the information do not have adequate access to the knowledge when it is needed.

During several ISS missions, there were false alarms at both US and Russian smoke detectors. High local airborne particulate concentrations and interior deposits are considered the causes for such anomalies. Alternatives are proposed to replace or complement these faulty smoke detectors. The entrained zeolite particles may play a role in causing problems with check valves and air save pumps in CDRA and Vozdukh. Another incidence has been the dispersion of particulates out of Metox regeneration oven. Particulate matters with aerodynamic diameter of 15 microns and above, which normally settle down on earth, stay airborne under micro-gravity and thereby cause the above-mentioned nuisances. The motion of such a particle along a gas stream with an initial velocity can be expressed by theoretical equations. Stokes' Law leads to the descriptions of inertial precipitation of aerosols that are important in solving the issues.

The purpose of this ARP is to provide criteria that will lead to and support existing regulatory standards of systems for UAM/AMM/eVTOL aircraft such that the emergency systems will facilitate egress under emergency conditions. Consideration is given to existing requirements of the FAA and to the recommendations of aircraft operators and those involved in the manufacture or use of the emergency lighting system. Occupant safety is the primary objective, with appropriate provisions for crew (pilot) system control taken into consideration. Consideration is also given to autonomous aircraft in which passengers are required to egress without the aid or direction of crew. The criteria established herein are intended to produce an emergency lighting system that will comply with the Federal and International Regulations. However, these recommendations are but one means of meeting the objective.

For human beings who have been reared on the earth with its 1 G gravitational field, the condition of weightlessness is a world with which we are unfamiliar. Even if the layout and equipment configuration of a spacecraft designed to compensate for operation under Zero-G conditions, there are some things which are not effective under actual weightless conditions. In the design of a manned spacecraft, it is necessary to accumulate design data on human performance in a weightless condition, then to undertake design evaluations and verification under weightless conditions. In this paper, testing for the purpose of evaluating the effectiveness of Zero-G simulation using neutral buoyancy, conducted first of all in Japan, and recommendations on the equipment and Facilities required to conduct such simulations, are described.

Workspace is an important function for human factors analysis and is widely applied in product design, manufacturing, and ergonomics evaluations. This paper presents the workspace analysis and visualization for Santos™ upper extremity, a new virtual human with over 100 DOFs that is highly realistic in terms of appearance, behavior, and movement. Jacobian Rank deficiency method is implemented to determine the singular surfaces. The joint limits are considered in this formulation; three types of singularities are analyzed. This closed-form formulation can be extended to numerous different scenarios such as different percentiles, age groups, or segments of body. A realtime scheme is used to build the workspace library for Santos™ that will study the boundary surfaces off-line and apply them to Santos™ in the virtual environment (Virtools®). To visualize the workspace, we develop a user interface to generate the cross section of the reach envelope with a plane.

One of the most unsolved problems in space projects, where human beings are involved, is the impossibility of simulating on the ground the effects of microgravity on astronauts' operability in space. [1] In particular, this is traceable in the performance of work activities, such as performing physiological scientific experiments. [2] This paper focuses on a study of the gap between the two operational scenarios: the ground test simulation and the in-flight space performance of complex physiological experiments. The major differences between the two operational scenarios are highlighted, and recommendations for improvement are suggested. The main finding of this paper is that, in order to make experiment performance not only possible but also easy and efficient, it is necessary to consider all human factors involved. With this perspective, the author's aim has been to find an effective way to consider all human factors of the ground and space operational conditions.

Optimal trajectory studies of aircraft in wind shear have resulted in insight as how to best fly an aircraft in a wind shear; these also question some previous (and current) recommendations. Recent accidents and incidents give new support for some old ideas. Human factors problems of information transfer to and from the cockpit and pilot interface with the aircraft are discussed. Some miscellaneous information is included for the record with reintroduction of some old data which are important but not currently provided to pilots. Because of the chronological record, the miscellaneous information is discussed first.

Starting with a brief review of the history of wind shear related accidents and incidents over the last 20 years, the pilot view of the wind shear encounter from the cockpit will be presented. With this view as the basis, the human factors aspect of the wind shear encounter will be discussed. Based on this insight, cockpit systems development to aid the crew in an inadvertant wind shear encounter will be reviewed.

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The aim of this document is to provide a comprehensive synopsis of regulations applicable to aircraft oxygen systems. The context of physiological requirements, international regulations, operational requirements and airworthiness standards is shown to understand the role of aircraft oxygen systems and to demonstrate under which circumstances is needed on aircraft. With regards to National Aviation Regulations States are committed to the Convention on International Aviation (Chicago Convention). The majority of states have adopted, with some deviations, FAA and EASA systems including operational and airworthiness requirements. Accordingly the extent of this document is primarily focused on FAA/EASA requirements.

Before considering the future of aircraft environmental control systems (ECS's), a review of the relatively short history of this field would be valuable in understanding the present situation. Therefore, this paper notes many of the significant developments in commercial aircraft air-cycle refrigeration and in cabin environmental control. The evolution leading to the great variety of air-cycle systems now in production, or under development, is discussed along with a generic comparison of the merits of the various system types and some reasons for their selection. Constraints on air conditioning system development imposed by the airline operators, aircraft manufacturers, and regulatory agencies are touched upon as significant to charting the future direction of air conditioning system design. Finally, several directions that could be taken in future design are briefly commented upon.

This book provides an introduction to the role, value, scope and the unique contributions the field of human factors can bring to the design process for all products. Aimed at the engineer and manager with no formal training in the life and social sciences, it is not intended to train the methods of human factors, but rather to provide knowledge that will enable engineers and managers to determine if including human factors in the planning and execution of product design is justified. Chapters include: Reasons Engineers Provide for Limiting Emphasis on Human Factors The Academic Disciplines Supporting Human Factors Human Factors Engineering and more

In the absence of recycling, water represents over 90% of the life-support consumables for a human spacecraft. In addition, over 90% of the waste water generated can be classified as either moderately or slightly contaminated (e.g. shower water, condensate from the air-conditioning system, etc..) The ability to recover potable water from moderately contaminated waste water hence enables significant savings to be made in resupply costs. A development model of such a water-recovery system, based on membrane technology, has been produced and tested using ‘real waste water’ based on used shower water. Results indicate some 95% recovery of potable water meeting European Space Agency (ESA) standards, with total elimination of microbial contaminants such as bacteria, spores and viruses. A second phase focused on improving the functioning of the breadboard and to test it in a long duration test (5-6 months).

This paper provides a focus on the R & D of solid sorption coolers and heat pumps made in the Luikov Heat & Mass Transfer Institute (CIS Countries Association “Heat Pipes”) under Thermacore, Inc. Agreement. Commercial and space applications of sorbent systems offer an attractive alternative to compression systems and liquid sorption system in cooling, heating and air conditioning. The key elements of solid sorption machines are the chemical compressors-adsorbers. Two categories of solid sorption system are analyzed: adsorbents (MgA, NaX zeolites, carbon fibre “Busofit” with water, acetone, NH3), and compounds with chemical reaction and physical adsorption (CaCL2+ carbon fibre “Busofit” with NH3). These systems differ in one very important aspect: the adsorption equilibrium is bivariant, chemical reaction is monovariant. Some promising results with zeolite-water and NH3, “Busofit” with acetone and NH3 are received.

Current helicopter cockpit design is no longer optimal for the high workload environment of Nap-of-the-Earth helicopter missions. A high degree of information processing is required to obtain a total picture of the flight environment. Under conditions of high workload and battle stress, the extra time and effort required for this cognitive processing may be too costly. Advances in technology have allowed for qualitative changes in information display - visual symbols can be displayed on CRT screens and voice messages can be used for an auditory display. Both sources of information can be encorporated into an integrated warning system. The Helicopter/VTOL Human Factors Office at NASA-Ames Research Center has begun to study the requirements for an integrated warning system in the helicopter cockpit.

Failure analysis of engineering systems typically emphasizes identification and mitigation under an independent failure assumption with dependent failures treated as the exception rather than the rule. Some frameworks for addressing dependent failures through analysis appear in standards including NUREG 0492, ISO 26262, MIL-1629-A, and ARP4761 amongst others. The purpose of identifying these dependencies is to allow system analysts to determine and quantify the factors that influence dependent fault probabilities. Once identified, failure relationships can be incorporated into a Discrete Event Simulation (DES) of the system, providing a mathematically rigorous estimate of system utility (e.g., availability, reliability). The output of a simulation can provide an expected value of performance but additionally, can also allow the analyst to identify the downstream impact of probabilistic dependencies between system elements.

Soon, pilots will be able to look at the outside world through an artificial window called Vision 1, a new system developed by Universal Avionics Systems Corporation. Vision 1 takes the situational awareness advances from TAWS (terrain awareness warning system) to a new level by generating real time terrain depictions on the pilot’s primary flight displays. These real time perspective terrain images, with additional three-dimensional position, flight plan and trend vector depictions, improve situational awareness of proximate terrain toward the perennial goal to enhance safety and reduce CFIT (Controlled Flight Into Terrain) accidents. Advances in computer processor, graphics, displays and solid-state memory technologies coupled with availability of worldwide digital terrain databases have enabled situational awareness displays. Early TAWS (terrain awareness warning system) utilized these technologies to produce situational awareness terrain depictions on weather radar displays.

Analyses are currently being conducted in the Man-Systems Division of the NASA Johnson Space Center, on the restructured Space Station Freedom configuration to determine viewing requirements for both robotic tasks and for extravehicular crew activities. The use of the PLAID software, a 3-D modeling simulation tool, provides a simulation of the environment and the system hardware to identify potential problem areas needing further refinement in design development. This process enables human factors considerations and issues to be explored during the design process, to identify and correct problems before hardware is actually constructed. Preliminary results have identified several potential viewing problem areas with the available lighting for both robotic and extravehicular activity (EVA) tasks.