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One of the major problems created by the use of methanol fuels in SI engines is the high cylinder bore and ring wear rates observed during operation at low engine temperatures. The objective of the work reported in this paper was to identify the processes controlling the corrosion/wear mechanism in methanol-fueled, spark-ignition engines. Basically, three different types of experiments were performed during this project. The experiments consisted of: 1. Combustion experiments designed to identify the combustion products of methanol at various locations within a confined methanol flame; 2. Exposure studies designed to define the specific role of each of the combustion products on the corrosion mechanism; 3. Lubricant screening experiments designed to identify the mode of penetration of the oil film, and the location, in the microscale, of the surface attack. Performic acid was identified as the corrosive agent.

Hybrids are fuels derived from combinations of different energy sources and which are generally formulated as solutions, emulsions, or slurries. The underlying objective of this program is to reduce the use of petroleum-derived fuels and/or to minimize the processing requirements of the finished hybrid fuels. Several hybrid fuel formulations have been developed and tested in a direct injection single-cylinder diesel engine. The formulations included solutions of ethanol and vegetable oils in diesel fuel, emulsions of methanol and of ethanol in diesel fuel; and slurries of starch, cellulose, and “carbon” in diesel fuel. Based on the progress to date, the solutions and emulsions appear to be viable diesel engine fuels if the economic factors are favorable and the storage and handling problems are not too severe. The slurries, on the other hand, are not to the same point of development as the solutions and emulsions.

It is now a fairly well established fact that excessive ring and cylinder bore wear can result from the operation of an S. I. engine on neat methanol. The mechanism leading to the excessive wear were investigated using both engine and bench tests. Engine tests using prevaporized superheated methanol indicated that the wear results from reactions between the combustion products and the cast iron cylinder liner, where the presence of liquid methanol in the combustion chamber appears to be an important part of the mechanism. These reactions were investigated using a spinning disc combustor. The spinning disc combustor was used to provide a source of burning methanol droplets which were subsequently quenched on a water-cooled cast iron surface. The condensate formed on the cast iron surface was collected and analyzed for chemical composition. Infrared analysis indicated the presence of large quantities of iron formate, a reaction product of iron and formic acid.

A constant volume bomb was used to determine basic combustion characteristics of isooctane, n-heptane, methanol, propane and methane. Results show that the laminar flame velocity of a quiescent homogeneous air/fuel mixture can be derived from pressure-time data in the bomb. The effects of pressure, temperature, and charge dilution on flame velocity and ignition are presented. A thermo-chemical kinetic model accurately predicted concentrations of nitric oxide during combustion and in the burned gas.

Due to the cost and mobility advantages of diesel-powered mine vehicles over electric vehicles, it is anticipated that the diesel engine will become more widely used in underground mines in this country. Concern has arisen, however, over the impact of diesel exhaust emissions on the air quality in the underground mine environment. A literature search has been conducted to identify known effects of fuel properties on the reduction of diesel exhaust emissions. Reductions can be obtained by optimizing fuel properties and by considering alternative fuels to standard diesel fuel. However, the data base is relatively small and the results highly dependent on engine type and operating conditions. Engine studies on a typical mine diesel are necessary to draw quantitative conclusions regarding the reduction of emissions, especially particulates and NO2 which have not been generally addressed in previous studies.

Diesel exhaust emission levels have been measured during discrete transients in speed and load, and with changes made to the engine and fuel. Particulate, oxides of nitrogen, unburned hydrocarbon, and carbon monoxide measurements were made for two fuels, DF2 and 5 percent water-in-fuel microemulsion, for both a standard Caterpillar 3304 and a modified 3304 engine. Engine modifications included increasing compression ratio and retarding injection timing. This paper examines the effects of the water addition and engine modification on the steady-state and transient emission levels. In general, the addition of water decreased the particulate and oxides of nitrogen emission levels for the standard engine, but increased the levels of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. For the modified engine, the water addition resulted in a slight decrease in oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter at high speed and load conditions.

The responses of diesel engine exhaust emissions to transients in speed and torque are examined. Particulate matter, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen were sampled for discrete segments of various transient cycles. Each cycle consisted of four distinct segments, two of which were steady state, in general, each segment was defined by choosing the beginning and ending values for speed and torque, and the segment length. Using regression techniques, prediction equations were obtained for each emission. The equations relate the emission levels to engine parameters, which describe each segment. Speed and torque were found to be important variables as were the rates at which speed and torque changed. Transients in torque were found to increase particulate and carbon monoxide emissions.

Methods to reduce direct injected diesel engine emissions in the combustion chamber will be discussed in this paper. The following NOx emission reduction technologies will be reviewed: charge air chilling, water injection, and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Emphasis will be placed on the development of an EGR system and the effect of EGR on NOx and particulates. The lower limit of NOx that can be obtained using conventional diesel engine combustion will be discussed. Further reductions in NOx may require changing the combustion process from a diffusion flame to a homogeneous charge combustion system.

Three different carbon blacks were used to formulate nine different slurries in DF-2. The rheological properties of each formulation were examined to determine deviations from Newtonian behavior. The spray characteristics of selected formulations were then examined in a high-pressure, high-temperature injection bomb. The cone angle decreased and the penetration rates increased for all of the slurries tested as compared to straight DF-2. These changes were more pronounced as the concentration of carbon black increased. Six formulations of three types of carbon black were tested in a single-cylinder, direct-injection CLR engine. Apparent heat release rates were computed as a function of crankangle from the cylinder pressure data. Based on the engine performance tests and some limited durability testing it appears that well-formulated carbon black slurries have only minor effects on engine performance and durability.

Heating neat (100 percent) methanol fuel (M100) is shown to improve dramatically the atomization of the fuel from a production, automotive, port fuel injector of pintle design. This improvement is particularly noticeable and important when compared with atomization at low fuel temperatures, corresponding to those conditions where cold-start is a significant problem with neat methanol-fueled (M100) vehicles. The improved atomization is demonstrated with photographs and laser-diffraction measurements of the drop-size distributions. Fuel temperatures were varied from -34°C (-29°F to 117°C (243°F), while the boiling point of methanol is 64.7°C (148.5°F). Air temperatures were ambient at about 24°C (75°F). For temperatures above the boiling point, some flash boiling and vaporization were presumably occurring, and these may have contributed to the atomization, but the trends for drop size did not shown any discontinuity near the boiling point.

A 2003 heavy-duty diesel engine (2002 emissions level) was used to test a representative biodiesel fuel as well as the methyl esters of several different fatty acids. The fuel variables included degree of saturation, the oxygen content, and carbon chain length. In addition, two pure normal paraffins with the corresponding chain lengths of two of the methyl esters were also tested to determine the impact of chain length. The dependent variables were the NOx and the particulate emissions (PM). The results indicated that the primary fuel variable affecting the emissions is the oxygen content. The emissions results showed that the highest oxygen content test fuel had the lowest emissions of both NOx and PM. As compared to the baseline diesel fuel the NOx emissions were reduced by 5 percent and the PM emissions were reduced by 83 percent.

Combustion studies on various potential alternative fuels were performed for the U.S. Array Belvoir Research and Development Center in a two-stroke heavy duty diesel engine. One cylinder of the engine was instrumented with a pressure transducer. A high-speed data acquisition system was used to acquire cylinder pressure histories synchronously with crankangle. The heat release diagrams, along with the calculated combustion efficiencies of the fuels were compared to a referee grade diesel fuel. The calculated and measured combustion parameters include heat release centroids, cumulative heat release, peak pressure, indicated horsepower, peak rate of pressure rise, indicated thermal efficiency, energy input, and ignition delay. Regression analyses were performed between various fuel properties and the calculated and measured combustion performance parameters. The fuel properties included specific gravity, cetane number, viscosity, boiling point distribution.

A relatively simple, commercially available, PC-based, dilute-spray model called TESS (Trajectory and Evaporation of Spray Systems) has been used to estimate methanol evaporation rates and drop-size evolution in bench experiments, and compared with measurements by McDonell and Samuelsen(1). Using measured initial conditions, the TESS model correlates well with the drop-size evolution for instruments using both number-flux-weighted sampling and number-density-weighted sampling, except close to the atomizer where the dilute spray assumptions do not apply. The amount of fuel evaporated at 100 mm from the atomizer is over-predicted (as expected for a dilute spray model) by 29 percent, but is within the experimental measurement error. The model is then used to estimate ethanol spray behavior in an intake manifold of a spark-ignition engine during cold-start.

Manufacturers of heavy-duty diesel engines for sale in the United States face an unprecedented reduction in emissions in 2007 and in 2010. Compared to today's levels, a 90% reduction in particulate matter (PM) must be achieved by 2007, and a 90% reduction in nitric oxides (NOx) must be achieved by 2010. This paper focuses on the technology solutions possible for engine makers for the interim 2007-2009 timeframe and discusses the additional NOx reduction strategies for a 2010 compliant engine. The possibility of achieving a larger portion of the interim 2007-2009 NOx standard through in-cylinder control methods rather than by NOx exhaust treatment is discussed. High levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and advanced injection strategies to modify the conventional diesel combustion process are just two processes that can be accommodated in many of today's engine designs.

In-cylinder control of particulate emissions in a diesel engine depends on careful control and understanding of the fuel injection and air/fuel mixing process. It is extremely difficult to measure physical parameters of the injection and mixing process in an operating engine, but it is possible to simulate some diesel combustion chamber conditions in a steady flow configuration whose characteristics can be more easily probed. This program created a steady flow environment in which air-flow and injection sprays were characterized under non-combusting conditions, and emissions measurements were made under combusting conditions. A limited test matrix was completed in which the following observations were made. Grid-generated air turbulence decreased particulates, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons, while CO2 and NOx levels were increased. The turbulence accelerated combustion, resulting in more complete combustion and higher temperatures at the measurement location.

Significant reductions of particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from diesel engines have been realized through fueling with water-fuel emulsions. However, the physical and chemical in-cylinder mechanisms that affect these pollutant reductions are not well understood. To address this issue, laser-based and chemiluminescence imaging experiments were performed in an optically-accessible, heavy-duty diesel engine using both a standard diesel fuel (D2) and an emulsion of 20% water, by mass (W20). A laser-based Mie-scatter diagnostic was used to measure the liquid-phase fuel penetration and showed 40-70% greater maximum liquid lengths with W20 at the operating conditions tested. At some conditions with low charge temperature or density, the liquid phase fuel may impinge directly on in-cylinder surfaces, leading to increased PM, HC, and CO emissions because of poor mixing.

The engine-out emissions and fuel consumption rates for a modern, heavy-duty diesel engine were compared when fueling with a conventional diesel fuel and three water-blend-fuel emulsions. Four different fuels were studied: (1) a conventional diesel fuel, (2) PuriNOx,™ a water-fuel emulsion using the same conventional diesel fuel, but having 20% water by mass, and (3,4) two other formulations of the PuriNOx™ fuel that contained proprietary chemical additives intended to improve combustion efficiency and emissions characteristics. The emissions data were acquired with three different injection-timing strategies using the AVL 8-Mode steady-state test method in a Caterpillar 3176 engine, which had a calibration that met the 1998 nitrogen oxides (NOX) emissions standard.

In 1997 the US EPA formed a Heavy-Duty Engine Working Group (HDEWG) in the Mobile Sources Technical Advisory Subcommittee to address the questions related to fuel property effects on heavy-duty diesel engine emissions. The Working Group consisted of members from EPA and the oil refining and engine manufacturing industries. The goal of the Working Group was to help define the role of the fuel in meeting the future emissions standards in advanced technology engines (beyond 2004 regulated emissions levels). To meet this objective a three-phase program was developed. Phase I was designed to demonstrate that a prototype engine, located at Southwest Research Institute, represented similar emissions characteristics to that of certain manufacturers prototype engines. Phase II was designed to document the effects of selected fuel properties using a statistically designed fuel matrix in which cetane number, density, and aromatic content and type were the independent variables.

In 1995, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) formed the Heavy-Duty Engine Working Group (HDEWG). The objective of the group was to assess the role diesel fuel could play in meeting exhaust emission standards proposed for model year 2004+ heavy-duty diesel engines. The group developed a three-phase program to achieve this objective. This paper describes the development of test fuels used in Phase 2 of the EPA HDEWG Program to investigate the effect of fuel properties on heavy-duty diesel engine emissions. It discusses the design of the fuel matrix, reviews the process of test fuel preparation and presents the results of a multi-laboratory fuel analysis program. Fuel properties selected for investigation included density, cetane number, mono- and polyaromatic hydrocarbon content.

The objective of the work reported in this paper was to develop and demonstrate an injection nozzle which can be used to inject both diesel fuel and methanol in to a direct injection diesel engine. The constraints on the nozzle were that it must provide acceptable fuel metering and atomization for the diesel fuel so that the engine can be operated at rated load on diesel fuel alone, or operate at full load with the diesel fuel as a pilot for the methanol. An additional constraint was that the nozzle design was to be easily adaptable to the existing injection nozzle so that engine head modifications are not required. The initial design was evaluated in a constant volume test chamber in which the pressure was varied from atmospheric to engine compression pressures.